LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 

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UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



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METHODS OF TEACHING: 



INCLUDING 



THE NATURE, OBJECT, AND LAWS OF EDUCA- 
TION, METHODS OF INSTRUCTION, AND 
METHODS OF CULTURE. 



BY/- 

ALBERT N. RAUB, Ph.D., 

Principal of the Central State Normal School, Lock Haven, Pa., and Author 
of "Lessons in English," "Practical English Grammar" "Tests 
in Spelling and Pronunciation" "Studies in English and 
American Literature" "School Management" etc. 

I I 




FIRESIDE PUBLISHING CO., 
PHILADELPHIA, PA. 

1883. 



Copyright, 

ALBERT N. RAUB, PH. D., 

1883. 



Westcott & Thomson, 

Silreotypers and Ekctrotypers, Philada. 






PREFACE. 



The aim of the author in preparing this work has 
been to write a book which would commend itself to all 
progressive teachers for its practical value. He has 
endeavored to present only such methods as have proved 
valuable in practice, and such as every young teacher 
will be safe in adopting. Where a method has seemed 
to him either unphilosophical or of little value in prac- 
tice, the author has not failed to condemn it, however 
eminent the theorists who have been its advocates. 

The book is designed not only as a textbook for the 
use of Normal Schools and Normal Classes, but also as 
a handbook for the use of students who are preparing 
to teach, but have not an opportunity of taking a course 
of professional instruction. It is designed also to afford 
help to those who are already engaged in teaching, and 
are desirous of improvement by professional reading. 

While the author has followed a systematic arrange- 
ment which will make the work desirable as a class- 
room textbook, he has at the same time kept steadily in 

3 



4 PREFACE. 

view the wants of the earnest teacher seeking for prac- 
tical methods in a condensed form. To such the sugges- 
tions appended to the discussions of the various topics 
will be of special value and importance. 

The author believes in applying the crucial test of 
school-room work under its ordinary conditions to every 
educational theory, whether new or old, and proving its 
value or its worthlessness there rather than on the lec- 
turer's platform or in a pedagogical treatise. He there- 
fore hopes that the methods here advocated may be 
submitted to the actual test of the class-room, believing 
that if they are judiciously used the teacher who employs 
them will meet with success. 



A. N. E. 

Haven, Pa.,) 
February 15, 1883. 



State Normal School, Lock Haven, Pa., \ 



CONTENTS. 



PART I. 
GENERAL NATURE OF EDUCATION. 

CHAPTER I. 

PAGE 

The Nature and Object of Education 11 

Definition of Terms 15 

CHAPTER II. 

Educational Laws 17 

Law I. The Human Mind Embraces a Number of Distinct 

Faculties 18 

Law II. The Faculties of the Mind Develop in a Fixed Order 20 

Law III. Self- Activity is a Law of Mental Growth 22 

Law IV. The Mind is both Acquisitive and Productive ... 23 
Law V. Human Beings are Created with Different Tastes and 

Talents 25 

Law VI. The Human Mind is Finite 26 

CHAPTER III. 
Forms of Instruction 27 

CHAPTER IV. 

Important Educational Principles 30 

1. Instruction and Culture are Mutually Dependent 30 

2. Culture is more Valuable than Knowledge 30 

3. Exercise is Necessary to Culture 31 

4. The Order of Instruction must Correspond to the Order of 

Growth 31 

5. The Order of Instruction must be from the Concrete to the 

Abstract 38 

6. All Primary Instruction must Proceed from the Known to 

the Unknown 39 

7. Instruction should First be Inductive, then Deductive . . 39 

8. Ideas should be Taught before Words 40 

9. Observation is the Source of all Knowledge 40 

10. The Age and the Capacity of the Pupil should Modify the 

Methods of Teaching ................ 41 



6 CONTENTS. 

PART II. 
METHODS OF INSTRUCTION. 



OBJECT-LESSONS. 

PAGE 

1. The Nature and Design of Object- Lessons 42 

2. The History of Object-Teaching 43 

3. The Advantages of Object-Lessons 44 

4. The Preparation Needed for Object- Lessons 48 

5. Methods of Object-Lessons 50 

6. Preliminary Instruction 52 

7. Cautions to be Eegarded 53 

Lessons on Form . . . . \ 55 

Lessons in Color 57 

Objects and their Parts 63 

Qualities of Objects . 66 



LANGUAGE. 
Learning to Talk 68 

CHAPTER I. 

Reading - . 70 

I. Objects of Learning to Read 71 

II. Methods for Beginners 72 

1. The Alphabetic Method 74 

2. The Word-Building Method 75 

3. The Word Method . 76 

4. The Object Method 76 

5. The Phonic Method 79 

6. The Phonetic Method 80 

7. The Sentence Method 81 

8. The Group Method 82 

Suggestions on Teaching Primary Reading . . . . 85 

III. The Vocal Element in Reading 101 

Quality . 101 

Emphasis 103 

Force 104 

Pitch 106 

Inflections , 108 

Rate 109 

Pauses Ill 

General Suggestions on Teaching Reading . . . .112 

Errors to be Avoided . . 116 

Rules for Reading 121 



CONTENTS. 7 

CHAPTEK II. page 

The Alphabet 122 

I. Methods of Teaching the Alphabet 123 

1. The ABC Method 123 

2. The Word Method 126 

II. Suggestions on Teaching the Alphabet 128 

CHAPTEK III. 

Orthography -. 130 

1. The Importance of Learning to Spell 130 

2. Difficulties in the Way of Teaching Orthography .... 132 

3. Methods of Eecitation 133 

1. The Oral Method 133 

Variations of the Oral Method 134 

Cautions on Oral Spelling 136 

2. The Written Method 137 

Variations of the Written Method 139 

4. Preparation for the Recitation 142 

5. General Suggestions on Teaching Spelling 143 

CHAPTER IV. 

Pronunciation 155 

I. Difficulties in the Way of Teaching Pronunciation . . . 156 

II. Methods of Teaching Pronunciation 157 

1. The Associative Method 157 

2. The Alphabetic Method 158 

3. The Phonic Method 160 

III. Suggestions on Teaching Pronunciation 162 

IV. Articulation 163 

Methods of Teaching Articulation 164 

Suggestions on Teaching Articulation 165 

V. Accent 166 

Methods of Teaching Accent 167 

Suggestions on Teaching Accent 168 

CHAPTER V. 

Lexicology 170 

Suggestions on Teaching Lexicology 173 

CHAPTER VI. 

Language- Lessons and Grammar 177 

I. Principles 178 

II. Methods 181 

First Lessons 181 

Subdivisions of Parts of Speech 196 

Modifications of Parts of Speech 207 

III. General Suggestions on Language-Culture 222 

IV. Grammatical Analysis 224 



8 CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Written Analysis 224 

Directions for Written Analysis . . 227 

Principles of Analysis 232 

Methods of Analysis 232 

V. Parsing 234 

VI. Syntax 238 

Topical Teaching 243 

Technical Grammar 243 

Words and their Functions 244 

Illustrating the Uses of Words 244 

VII. Suggestions on Teaching Grammar 245 

CHAPTER VII. 

Composition 248 

I. The Advantages of Teaching Composition 248 

II. Methods of Teaching Composition 249 

III. The Plan 250 

IV. Suggestions on Composition 255 

CHAPTEE VIII. 

Rhetoric 260 

1. Divisions of Rhetoric . 261 

2. Diction 261 

3. Figures . ^ 261 

4. Versification 262 

5. Prose Composition 263 

6. Punctuation 263 

7. Rhetorical Essays 264 

CHAPTER IX. 

English Literature 265 

I. First Steps in Literature • 265 

II. Studies in Literature 267 

III. History of Literature • 268 



MATHEMATICS. 

CHAPTER I. 

The Value of Mathematical Studies 270 

CHAPTER II. 

Arithmetic 272 

I. Methods 272 

II. Principles Governing the Teaching of Arithmetic . . . 274 

The Plan 277 

Counting 277 

Notation and Numeration 278 



f 



CONTENTS. 9 

PAGE 

Integers 280 

Addition 280 

Subtraction 282 

Multiplication 284 

Division 286 

The Grube Method 288 

Factoring 289 

Fractions 290 

Reduction of Fractions 290 

Addition and Subtraction of Fractions 294 

Multiplication 295 

Division 296 

Decimal Fractions 298 

Denominate Numbers 299 

Longitude and Time 300 

Ratio and Proportion 301 

Percentage 302 

General Suggestions on Teaching Arithmetic . . 303 



CHAPTER III. 

Algebka 310 

Addition , 315 

Subtraction 316 

Multiplication 320 

Division 321 

Fractions 322 

Factoring 322 

Radicals 323 

Literal Equations 324 

The Force of Signs . . . > 324 

Suggestions on Teaching Algebra 325 

CHAPTER IV. 

Geometry 327 

Methods of Teaching Geometry 328 

Geometrical Truths 331 

The Science of Geometry 335 

Suggestions on Teaching Geometry 337 



PHYSICAL SCIENCE. 



CHAPTER I. 

The Elements of Physical Science 339 

I. The Value of Physical Science 340 

II. The Sciences to be Taught ..' 344 

III. Suggestions on Teaching Physical Science 345 



10 CONTENTS. 

CHAPTEK II. page 

Geography 353 

Methods of Teaching Geography 354 

The Plan of Teaching 357 

Suggestions on Teaching Geography . . 369 

CHAPTEK III. 

History . . 378 

I. Difficulties in the Way of Teaching History 378 

II. Methods of Teaching History 379 

Principles 380 

Essentials in Teaching History 382 

Methods of Kecitation 386 

Preparation for the Recitation 388 

III. Suggestions on Teaching History . 389 



THE AKTS. 

CHAPTER I. 

Penmanship 393 

The Ends to be Secured in Teaching Penmanship 394 

Suggestions on Penmanship , 394 

CHAPTER II. 

Drawing 400 

Suggestions on Teaching Drawing 400 

CHAPTER III. 

Vocal Music 404 

Suggestions on Vocal Music 404 



PART III. 
METHODS OF CULTUKE. 

How to Secure and Hold Attention 406 

Culture of Perception 408 

Culture of Memory 410 

Culture of Imagination 412 

Culture of Understanding 414 



METHODS OF TEACHING. 



PAET I. 

GENERAL NATURE OF EDUCATION. 



CHAPTER I. 
The Nature and Object of Education. 

Teaching, in the modern acceptation of the term, 
embraces both culture and instruction. It includes not 
only educational training, but also the imparting of 
knowledge ; the term is therefore synonymous with the 
word education. Formerly, the word " teaching " signi- 
fied substantially the same as the w 7 ord " instruction," 
and therefore included only the imparting of know- 
ledge. 

Education. — The term education is derived from the 
Latin edueo, educare, to foster, to feed, to teach. Its 
primary signification, like that of the word "teaching," 
was more limited than its present meaning. By some 
writers the word "teaching" has been applied to the 
training of the intellectual nature alone, while the term 
"education" has been applied to the culture of man's 
moral nature. 

11 



12 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

It is claimed that education is both a science and an 
art. As a science it investigates^ classifies, and formu- 
lates the laws which govern the physical and mental ac- 
tions of mankind. As an art it applies such means and 
methods as impart the most profitable instruction in the 
manner best suited to give both mind and body the most 
valuable culture. 

The process of education involves three elements — 
Man, or the object to be educated; Knowledge, or the 
means to be employed ; and .Methods, or the manner of 
imparting knowledge in such a way as to give the proper 
culture. 

It will readily be seen that the science of education 
admits of study, and it will as readily be admitted that 
to be a successful teacher, in the broadest sense of the 
term, one must understand thoroughly the three ele- 
ments which enter into the process of all true education. 

Man consists of body and mind. The teacher must 
understand the nature of both of these. He should 
have a thorough knowledge of the physical system, the 
functions of the various parts, and the best means of 
preserving the bodily health. He should also know 
definitely the influence which a diseased or a healthy 
body exerts on the condition of one's mind, and also the 
proper means by which to promote physical health and 
physical training, so as to make the body not only 
healthful, but also strong and beautiful. 

The teacher must understand the human mind. He 
must know the faculties of which it consists, the com- 
parative order of development of those faculties, the 
proper knowledge to be imparted in order to secure the 
most profitable mental growth, and the method of im- 



THE NATURE AND OBJECT OF EDUCATION. 13 

parting knowledge in such a manner as to secure the 
best results. It is no more necessary for the farmer to 
understand the nature of the soil he tills, the manner 
of growth of the plant he cultivates, and the laws 
which govern that growth, together with the means to 
be applied and the proper method of application in 
order to promote healthy growth, than it is for the 
teacher to understand thoroughly the human mind. 

It is true that an ignorant farmer, without any know- 
ledge of scientific husbandry, may manage to secure a 
crop, and, as he gains experience, increase the size of 
the crop. In a similar manner, the non-scientific teacher 
may find minds developing under his training, notwith- 
standing his blunders or ignorance ; but neither the 
plant-growth nor the mind-growth is w T hat it might 
have been under the judicious guidance of one who un- 
derstood his work from the beginning. Skillful teach- 
ing, like skillful husbandry, may be gained by experi- 
ence, but it must be at the expense of the mental growth 
of the children placed under the unskilled teacher's care. 
The school-room ought not to be a place where low- 
salaried teachers are placed to gain experience by con- 
tinued experiment. 

The Object of Education. 

The chief object of education is development in the 
fullest sense of the term — intellectual, moral, and phys- 
ical. That man is best educated whose whole being, 
body and mind, is most symmetrically and harmoniously 
developed, and whose powers, both physical and mental, 
have been strengthened and cultured in accordance with 
the laws of normal growth. 



14 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

Education embraces Culture and Instruction. Man has 
certain powers both of body and of mind, each of which 
may receive systematic training designed to give it per- 
fect development. These methods of training, whether 
of the physical or of the mental powers, give rise to 
what are known as Methods of Culture. 

In the process of education knowledge is communi- 
cated. The 'mind craves knowledge as the physical 
system craves food. The physical organs digest and 
assimilate the food, and it is made to supply physical 
loss, give strength to the body, and develop the physical 
system. In a similar manner, knowledge is assimilated 
by the human mind, the mental powers systematize it, 
and it is made to aid healthy mental growth and devel- 
opment. The methods of imparting this knowledge 
from one mind to another give rise to what are known 
as Methods of Instruction. 

Methods of culture and methods of instruction are in 
a measure distinct, and yet each implies the other. Cul- 
ture is gained by knowledge as physical growth is gained 
by food. There can be no culture without knowledge, 
and that system of instruction is best which gives the 
most valuable culture. Instruction aims to impart 
knowledge, while the object of culture is to give growth 
and development. The latter is an end to be attained, 
while the former is a means by which to attain the de- 
sired end. 

The art of school management has by many writers 
been considered one of the essentials of education. It 
seems, however, rather to be co-ordinate with methods of 
culture and methods of instruction. Indeed, the three 
are so intertwined that it is a matter of no little diffi- 



THE NATURE AND OBJECT OF EDUCATION. 15 

culty to discuss any one of them without to some extent 
trenching upon the others. 

The process of education may be subdivided, accord- 
ing to the powers to be dealt with, into Physical, Intel- 
lectual, and Moral education. To these may be added 
JEsthetic and Religious education. 

Physical education has for its object the proper training, 
growth, and development of the human body in such a 
way as to promote strength, health, grace, and beauty. 

Intellectual education has for its object the training, 
growth, and development of the intellectual powers of 
man. It aims to give strength and development to 
man's mind, as physical education does to his body. 

Moral education has for its object the training and 
strengthening of man's moral nature. It considers the 
relations which exist between any individual and other 
human beings. It aims to cultivate the conscience, and 
subordinates the will to one's sense of right and duty. 

^Esthetic education has for its object the culture of 
taste. It aims to train man's mind not only to perceive, 
but also to appreciate and love, the beautiful. 

Religions education differs from moral education in 
this, that it considers man's relations to a Supreme Being, 
where moral education deals with man's relations with 
man alone. 

Definition of Terms. 

A Teacher is now understood to be one who teaches 
or educates. A teacher is no longer one who simply in- 
structs, he also trains. 

An Instructor (in and struere, to pile up) is properly 
one who imparts instruction. 



16 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

An Educator [educate, to foster, to teach) is one who 
is conversant with education — one who promotes the 
cause of education, rather than one who educates. 

Pedagogy (pais, paidos, a boy, and agogos, leading) is 
used by many writers as synonymous with education, in- 
cluding both the science and the art of teaching. It is a 
favorite term with German writers, though, it is said, they 
do not advocate the term " pedagogue." 

Didactics (didaskein, to teach) is also used as a synonym 
for the w 7 ord " education." In many normal schools and 
in some colleges the term has gained a foothold, from the 
fact that chairs or professorships of didactics have been 
established. 

It may be said of all these terms that none is more 
full of meaning or more likely to be respected than the 
two words Teacher and Teaching, which have a humility 
and sterling worth all their own. 



CHAPTER II. 
Educational Laws. 

As has been stated, the chief object of education is an 
harmonious development of all man's powers. This de- 
velopment is controlled by laws which govern the growth 
both of body and of mind. In some respects man does 
not differ from the lower animals, or even from the vege- 
table kingdom. Plant life and growth depend upon fixed 
natural laws, which the husbandman must understand in 
order to give the most profitable culture; and, similar- 
ly, both the physical and the mental growth of man are 
governed by laws or principles which dare not be ignored 
if we hope to secure the best development. 

All systems of education must be based on these nat- 
ural laws, and every one that enters upon the work of 
teaching should understand them as thoroughly as the 
physician is expected to understand the anatomy and 
physiology of the human body or the laws of hygiene. 
An eminent writer says : " Nothing; is more absurd than 
the common notion of instruction, as if science were to 
be poured into the mind like water into a cistern that 
passively waits to receive all that comes." Sir William 
Hamilton says : " A liberal education is an education in 
which the individual is cultivated, not as an instrument 
toward some ulterior end, but as an end unto himself 

2 17 



18 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

alone ; in other words, an education in which his abso- 
lute perfection as a man, and not merely his relative 
dexterity as a professional man, is the scope immedi- 
ately in view." 

GENERAL LAWS. 

The following are among the most important of the 
general laws of education, together with the inferences: 

Law I. The Human Mind Embraces a Number of Distinct 
Faculties. 

The Mind is that which thinks, feels, and wills. These 
operations indicate three departments of mind, as follows: 
The thinking or knowing part, called the Intellect; the 
feeling or emotional part, known as the Sensibilities; and 
the part which puts forth volition, known as the Will. 

A Mental Faculty is the mind's power of doing some- 
thing or of putting forth some mental activity. The 
mind has as many faculties as there are distinct forms 
of this mental activity. Metaphysicians do not agree 
upon the exact number of mental faculties, some hold- 
ing that attention and consciousness are distinct mental 
powers, while others maintain that these are only con- 
ditions which accompany all forms of mental activity. 

The Intellect includes a number of faculties — Percep- 
tion, Memory, Imagination, Understanding, and Reason 
or Intuition. 

The Understanding, which is known also as the elab- 
orative power of the mind and as the reasoning powers, 
embraces several distinct forms of mental activity, known 
as Abstraction, Classification, Generalization, Judgment, 
and Reasoning. The term Conception is by some writers 



EDUCATIONAL LAWS. 19 

substituted for the terms " Classification" and "Generali- 
zation." 

The Sensibilities include the emotions, the appetites, 
and the desires, which are also subdivided by some au- 
thors into animal and rational. 

The Will is the executive power of the mind. 

Each of these mental powers has its special work to 
perform, not only in acquiring knowledge, but also in 
the matter of securing proper culture and development. 

Inference 1. A proper scheme of education must provide 
for the training of all man's powers. — This is evident 
from the fact that the development must be an harmoni- 
ous development. A one-sided education is necessarily 
defective. Culture of intellect alone, without the cor- 
responding culture of the moral nature, may make a 
man an intellectual giant, but lacking character he be- 
comes all the more dangerous because of his intellectual 
strength. The fac^ too, that God has endowed man 
with these various powers, and that each has its special 
use in aiding one to attain a symmetrical development, 
are strong proofs that educational plans must provide 
for the proper training of all the various powers. 

Inference 2. Such branches of knowledge must be taught 
as will give development to all man's powers. — The wise 
teacher will adapt the knowledge he attempts to impart 
to the mental wants of the child. Studies, a knowledge 
of which may be gained through the senses, will prove 
well adapted to the training of perception ; mathematics 
and grammar will be found suited to the culture and de- 
velopment of the understanding; and still others will be 
found suited to the culture of the memory, the imagina- 
tion, and the other mental faculties. 



20 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

Inference 3. The methods of instruction must be such as 
to develop all the mental powers. — Mechanical instruction 
or imitative teaching too often results in mere memory- 
culture. Pupils who are permitted to memorize text- 
book answers have the memory trained at the expense 
of the other mental powers, and rarely become success- 
ful or profound scholars. Those also who memorize 
problems and mathematical solutions and demonstrations, 
or who solve problems without thought and without ex- 
planation, violate the same principle of mental growth. 
No two branches can be taught in precisely the same 
manner. The intelligent teacher varies his methods, so 
as to develop harmoniously all the powers of the human 
mind. 

Law II. The Faculties of the Mind Develop in a Fixed 
Order. 

While it is true that all the mental powers are more 
or less active at all times, it is equally true that at the 
various periods of life some of these faculties are rela- 
tively stronger and more active than are the others. 
Psychologists agree that Perception is more active in 
infancy and early* childhood than the other fac- 

ulties. The first knowledge that <* cnild gains comes 
to him through the senses; these furnish all knowl- 
edge acquired through the operation of the observing 
powers. 

The Memory, or that power by which we retain and 
recall knowledge, is also developed at an early period of 
life, and closely connected with its operations are those 
of the Imagination, the power by which we form ideal 
creations. The development of these two follows closely 



EDUCATIONAL LAWS. 21 

on that of Perception, and from this point onward the 
three are more or less active together. 

The Understanding , or that power of the mind which 
takes the materials furnished by the other faculties and 
derives new products and new truths — that power which 
classifies, generalizes, judges, and reasons — is probably 
the next in the order of development. 

Still later is developed the Reason or Intuition, the 
power which gives us thoughts and ideas not furnished 
by the senses or reasoned out by the understanding, such 
as our ideas of beauty, right and wrong, time, space, and 
cause. 

Thus it will be found there is an order of mental de- 
velopment which characterizes every child. It may be 
more marked in some than in others, and different minds 
may develop with greater or less rapidity, but the truth 
remains that there is a relative order of development in 
the mind ; and this dare not be ignored by the teacher. 

Inference 1. Studies must be adapted to the order of men- 
tal development. — It would-be absurd to require children 
to pursue the study sl such branches first as require an 
exercise of the understanding, since this is among the 
last of the me. \ faculties to be developed. Naturally, 
the first studies should be such as appeal to the senses. 
Following these should be such studies as are suited to 
give memory-culture^ then such as will train the imag- 
ination, and so on, making the studies correspond to the 
natural order of mental development. 

Inference 2. Methods of instruction must be adapted to 
the laws of mental growth. — The first instruction must be 
adapted to the undeveloped character of the child's mind. 
Indeed, the earliest instruction must be largely informal, 



/ 



22 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

such as is characteristic of the Kindergarten, where the 
child is placed amid such surroundings and under such 
conditions as will lead him to develop his own powers, 
the teacher acting mainly as a guide. The next step is 
such methods as will develop both memory and percep- 
tion, and so forward, following the indicated order of 
mental growth. 

Law HI. — Self-activity is a Law of Mental Growth. 

Sir William Hamilton says : " The primary principle 
of education is the determination of the pupil to self-ac- 
tivity." A plant grows and develops in accordance with 
an inherent principle or law. All that the husbandman 
can do is to hasten or retard that growth by surrounding 
the plant with conditions favorable or otherwise. The 
life-principle is there, and simply awaits the conditions 
which will prove most congenial and favorable to its de- 
velopment. The human mind also develops in accord- 
ance with laws inherent in its nature. If the conditions 
by which it is surrounded be unfavorable to its growth, 
its development may be retarded; but if these condi- 
tions, on the other hand, be favorable, the development 
may be marvelous. The mind of a child is not a mere 
passive receiver into which knowledge may be poured. 
True education is growth, development. It is only by 
the mind's inherent energy that it becomes strong. 

Inference 1. Studies must be sueh as will enable the 
child to acquire self-development. — No child should be 
required to pursue the study of that which is beyond 
his capacity to master. Studies must be adapted to the 
mental ability of the learner. Much of the dissatisfac- 
tion some years ago with results in the teaching of such 



EDUCATIONAL LAWS, 23 

branches as grammar arose from the fact that the science 
taught was beyond the comprehension of the learner. 
Children could not master the difficulties for themselves, 
and many teachers had no knowledge of the subject out- 
side of the individual textbook which they had studied. 
The law of self-activity had been violated in both cases. 

Inference 2. Methods of instruction should be such as 
will train pupils to self-developnient. — Training to think is 
the important part of all good teaching. It is what the 
child does for himself that gives him culture and 
strength. The wise teacher does not spend so much of 
his time in imparting knowledge as he does in guiding 
the learner's efforts to acquire knowledge for himself. 
A teacher can do no greater harm to a child than to 
furnish that child with answers and thoughts ready 
formed. Every child should do his own work, his own 
thinking, if he hopes to acquire either knowledge or 
mental growth. 

It is only the unskilled and uneducated teacher that 
believes children are educated mainly by what they are 
told. That instruction or that discipline which aids the 
child most is that in which the teacher acts as a guide 
only, and permits the child to think and do for himself- 
under judicious direction. All teachers should be alive 
to " the worthlessness of any process of elementary edu- 
cation which does not aim, above all things else, to train 
the minds of pupils to think, and to empower them to 
give fluent and accurate expression to thought in speech 
and writing." 

Law IV. — The Mind is both Acquisitive and Productive. 
We receive knowledge largely through the senses. 



24 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

Children very early in life observe and gain knowledge 
constantly through this channel. We acquire knowl- 
edge also by reading and by listening to the words 
of others. 

The mind not only receives knowledge, it also creates. 
It is the special work of the understanding to create new 
products and bring new results from the materials already 
in the mind. It is the work of the imagination to cre- 
ate ideal pictures. The mind is therefore not only ac- 
quisitive, but also creative. 

Inference 1. Studies must be of such a character as to 
afford knowledge and furnish material for thought — It is 
not enough that we simply receive ; knowledge must be 
of such a character as to permit us to originate thought. 
One is essential to the other? Both acquisition and pro- 
duction are necessary to give the mind proper culture. 
The knowledge gained by the acquisitive powers must 
be such as will furnish material for the productive ; thus 
both may become strengthened and developed. 

Inference 2. Methods of instruction must be adapted both 
to furnish knowledge and to arouse thought. — Much of the 
knowledge imparted in the ordinary course of instruction 
is designed to give the student a fund of information. 
The method of imparting this knowledge, however, must 
be such also as will create interest, that it may be ac- 
quired under the most favorable circumstances. The 
method of imparting knowledge must be such also as 
will serve to arouse thought on the part of the pupil. 
Where it is possible, the pupil should be encouraged 
to originate new thoughts, give original solutions, 
and, in general, exercise the productive power of the 
mind. 



EDUCATIONAL LAWS. 25 

Law V. Human Beings are Created with Different Tastes 
and Talents. 

All minds have the same general powers, but these 
powers are not equally strong or equally susceptible of 
development in each individual. Children's tastes differ. 
So also do their capacities for acquiring certain kinds of 
knowledge. One may be specially talented in mathemat- 
ics, but deficient in language, while another's taste is for 
language or natural science rather than mathematics. In 
either case the pupil will acquire much the more readily 
that knowledge which is in accordance with his natural 
taste. 

Inference 1. Knowledge must be adapted to the individual 
taste. — While it is wise in elementary schools to give gen- 
eral instruction at first^ it is also wise, where possible, to 
adapt the branches taught to the individual capacity of 
the pupils. If one is specially fitted to become a painter 
or an artist, every opportunity should be afforded not 
only to gratify the special taste, but also to give culture 
to the natural talent. Technical schools must of course 
do much of this work — polytechnic schools for engineers, 
medical colleges for physicians, theological schools for 
clergymen, and so on. In these the special knowledge 
can be adapted to the individual preferences. 

Inference 2. Methods of teaching should vary according 
to the individual capacity of pupils. — This is true not only 
as concerns the individual taste of pupils, but also as con- 
cerns their individual talent. The bright pupil needs but 
little assistance, while his neighbor, who thinks more 
slowly, may need considerable encouragement, and occa- 
sionally actual assistance, to enable him to understand 
and comprehend. The difference of individual talent 



26 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

to some extent characterizes also the two sexes, and the 
methods of instruction, even in the same class, ought to 
vary on this account. 

Law VI. The Human Mind is Finite. 

The powers of mind are limited. We can reason to a 
certain extent, but there our power ends. Every faculty 
of man, like every one of his physical powers, has limits 
beyond which it is impossible to operate. We cannot 
comprehend the Infinite. 

Inference. All methods of teaching must end in that which 
is finite. — It is folly to attempt to reach the infinite. We 
may go beyond the finite, reaching forth everywhere be- 
yond the unknown, but many of our conclusions will 
p A 3ve our work to be mere speculation. 



CHAPTER III. 

Forms of Instruction. 

Instruction consists in imparting knowledge to an- 
other. Knowledge may be conveyed in different ways, 
and these give rise to different forms of instruction. The 
most important forms of instruction are the following : 

1. Oral Instruction. — This consists in the teacher's talk- 
ing with his pupils and conveying orally most or all of 
the knowledge he imparts. It does away with the use of 
the textbook. The teacher takes the place of the text- 
book, and furnishes all the facts and principles that the 
textbook is supposed to give. The chief value of this 
method of instruction is found in its application to pri- 
mary schools, where object-lessons form the basis of in- 
struction. Even here, however, it is liable to be abused 
and to lead pupils into careless and idle habits. 

2. Concrete and Abstract Instruction. — Concrete Instruc- 
tion is that which makes use of objects and illustrations 
for the purpose of imparting knowledge. All work in 
the nature of object-lessons may be regarded as concrete, 
also such methods as employ diagrams, pictures, apparatus, 
or illustrations of any kind. 

Concrete instruction is valuable in all primary teaching 

27 



28 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

of any branch. Indeed, all primary teaching is best ac- 
complished by the concrete method, where every child can 
be made to understand bv the use of such illustrations or 
apparatus as he is fully able to comprehend. 

Abstract Instruction does away with all illustration. 
The mere repetition of rules in grammar, the reciting 
of tables in arithmetic, counting and performing other 
arithmetical work by rote, and without the use of prac- 
tical illustration or business application, are examples of 
.abstract teaching. 

3. Synthetic and Analytic Instruction. — Synthetic In- 
struction is that which begins with parts and proceeds 
to wholes. In geography it begins with the home or the 
school-grounds, and proceeds from that to the township, 
county, State, etc. In grammar, synthetic instruction 
begins with words and forms sentences, and from these 
discourse. 

Analytic Instruction is the opposite of synthetic. 
Analytic instruction proceeds from the general to the 
particular, from wholes to parts. In geography, ana- 
lytic instruction teaches the globe first as a whole, then 
the divisions, then the subdivisions, etc. In grammar, 
analytic instruction begins with the sentence and pro- 
ceeds to the divisions and their modifiers, showing the 
uses of the respective parts. 

4. Inductive and Deductive Teaching. — Inductive Teach- 
ing is somewhat of the nature of synthetic teaching. It 
proceeds from the particulars to the general. It begins 
with examples and processes, and ends in principles and 
rules. In arithmetic, by inductive teaching, the pupil is 



FORMS OF INSTRUCTION. 29 

led to form his own rules from a clear understanding of 
the various processes. The same is true in other branches : 
the examples and processes come first, and the rule or 
principle last. By the inductive process the order is, 
first the idea, then the name, and lastly the definition. 
Deductive Teaching begins with principles or rules, 
and passes to the demonstration and application of them. 
It proceeds from the general to the particulars. Its or- 
der is the reverse of the inductive method. In geometry, 
it begins with the proposition and proceeds to the demon- 
stration. In philosophy, it states the general law, and 
then proves it by experiment and illustration. In 
arithmetic, it lays down the rule, and then shows the 
practical application. 



CHAPTER IV. 

Important Educational Principles. 

The following important principles should be kept in 
mind by the teacher : 

1. Instruction and Culture are Mutually Dependent. — 
Any attempts at educating in which instruction is im- 
parted without giving culture are worse than useless. 
Culture is, indeed, the chief object of education, and 
therefore instruction should aim not simply nor chiefly 
at imparting knowledge, but rather at so cultivating the 
mind as to give it a healthful, symmetrical development. 
Any attempts at culture must result also in imparting to 
the mind of the learner a vast quantity of useful knowl- 
edge. The two, therefore, are mutually dependent. 

2. Culture is more Valuable than Knowledge. — The un- 
disciplined or uncultured mind, however valuable the 
facts and knowledge it may have stored, has but little 
power unless that knowledge be at command. Bacon 
says : " Knowledge is power ;" it were better had he 
said, Culture is power. Culture even gives one the 
power to acquire knowledge. It enables one to origi- 
nate ; it gives one new ideas. Culture prepares us to 
win the battles of life. Knowledge gives us the giant's 

.30 



IMPORTANT EDUCATIONAL PRINCIPLES. 31 

strength, but culture gives us the power and the skill to 
use that strength effectively. 

The teacher, while imparting knowledge, should al- 
ways keep in view the culture of the child's various 
faculties, and under no circumstances should he permit 
his liking for any department of knowledge to lead him 
to forget that it is his mission to develop the child- mind, 
rather than pour into it a mass of disintegrated and dis- 
connected facts called knowledge. The teacher should 
know the value of each study, its relation to the mental 
faculties, and how best to teach it so as to give each of 
these faculties its due share of culture. 

3. Exercise is Necessary to Culture. — Strength of both 
body and mind comes from exercise. The muscles un- 
used become weak and flabby ;. the senses unused become 
obtuse ; the memory without exercise becomes unreliable ; 
and thus w T ith the other mental powers, each grows 
weaker the less the exercise to w T hich it is subjected. 
On the other hand, the more one's mental and physical 
powers are exercised judiciously, the stronger and the 
more reliable they become. 

Studies must not, however, be of such a nature as to 
stimulate too greatly, otherwise some of the mental 
powers may be abnormally developed, or be developed 
at the expense of others quite as important. The vari- 
ous branches of knowledge are well fitted to give cul- 
ture to all the mental powers, and it is the work of the 
judicious teacher to provide for the symmetrical culture 
of these powers. 

4. The Order of Instruction must Correspond to the Or- 



32 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

der of Growth. — By some writers the school-time of life 
has been divided into four periods, as follows : 

1. Infancy ', or the time from birth to the age of Jive. 

2. Childhood, or the time from the age of five to the 
age of ten; 

3. Youth, or the time from the age of ten to the age 
of sixteen; 

4. Manhood, or the time from the age of sixteen to the 
age of twenty-one. 

Dr. Hill divides this time into five periods, as 
follows : 

1. The first, or sub-primary school, from the age of 
five to the age of eight; 

2. The second, or primary school, from the age of eight 
to the age of eleven ; 

3. The third, or grammar school, from the age of 
eleven to the age of fourteen ; 

4. The fourth, or high school, from the age of fourteen 
to the age of seventeen ; 

5. The fifth, or college period, from the age of seventeen 
to the age of twenty-one. 

The foregoing division is not only practical, but also 
logical where the child is placed under systematic in- 
struction the greater part of the year. As the length 
of the school-term varies, however, the author prefers 
the following division into three periods : 

First Period. — This includes the first ten vears of the 
child's life. During a great part of this period the child 
depends, to a great extent, on its senses in acquiring 
knowledge. The perceptive powers develop rapidly, 
the attention of the child is engaged with surrounding 
objects constantly, and the elements of knowledge are 



IMPORTANT EDUCATIONAL PRINCIPLES. 33 

gathered from the surrounding world. It is during 
this period that the child learns to walk, run, and per- 
form other physical feats. During this period also it 
learns language rapidly, but almost wholly by imitation. 
Habits of speech formed at this time will in most cases 
be habits for life; it is therefore all-important that the 
language which it acquires and incorporates as a part of 
its own vocabulary be both correct and elegant. 

The child during this first period of life is constantly 
gathering facts from the surrounding world. It investi- 
gates things, their properties and uses, and seeks to know 
their names. It is all this while laying the foundation 
for future knowledge of a more scientific character, and 
the efforts of those who have the guidance of the child 
should aim to aid Nature, for she is the chief teacher. 
She supplies the materials and furnishes the occasion 
for the mental exercise, and the child learns by its own 
efforts. 

The teacher's methods must be such as harmonize with 
Nature. She lays down for the learner no rules, no gen- 
eral principles, no laws. She simply places the objects 
before the child and stimulates him to inquiry, and he 
learns for himself. She spurs the child to action, and 
even permits him to find out his own blunders. Does 
the child want to know whether an object is hard or 
soft, hot or cold, heavy or light, sweet or sour, she does 
not explain, but lets him make the test and gain the 
knowledge for himself. She tells the child little, but 
allows him to do his own work, and gives him no help 
where it is possible for him to find out for himself. Let 
the wise teacher take the hint which Nature gives in this 
quiet teaching. 

3 



34 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

In Mathematics let the work be in connection with 
objects. The teaching here should be concrete. Begin- 
ning with the counting of objects, the child may be made 
to understand the processes embraced in the fundamental 
rules, Fractions both common and decimal, and gain some 
knowledge of Denominate Numbers, particularly if the 
tables be illustrated by means of actual weights and 
measures. The child during this period may also be 
made to distinguish the chief geometrical forms and 
name the different elements of form. 

In Language the child should first be taught to talk, 
and care should be taken that the forms of speech which 
it uses are correct, that the use of good language may be- 
come a habit of its life. Beginning with the age of six 
or seven, a systematic course of instruction in language- 
lessons may be given to the child, including the compo- 
sition of sentences, the copying of reading-lessons, the use 
of capital letters, the use of the chief punctuation- marks, 
the changing of sentences from one form to another, the 
reproduction of stories, descriptions, etc. The child may 
also learn during this period much of the spelling and 
pronunciation of its mother-tongue. 

In the department of Physical Science the child's know- 
ledge consists largely of an accumulation of facts which are 
the results of its own observation. Many of the questions 
which he will ask would puzzle a philosopher to answer. 
It is the work of the teacher to direct the child's efforts 
in such a way as to make his knowledge useful. The 
child may be taught much with reference to leaves, flow- 
ers, and trees; also about wild and domestic animals, and 
their habits; also the different kinds of minerals, together 
with their uses and comparative value. He may also be 



IMPORTANT EDUCATIONAL PRINCIPLES. 35 

taught some of the more simple facts of natural phil- 
osophy, together with the causes of the most familiar 
phenomena. 

In Geography he may be taught to distinguish the 
different divisions of land and water, the locations of 
the most important countries on the map, the directions 
of the compass, the direction of the different localities 
from his own home or from the school-house. 

In History the knowledge he gains must be largely 
of a biographical nature. It ought to consist mainly 
of stories read or related bv the teacher. 

In the Arts the child may be taught to sing at a very 
early age. But little of the science of music, however, 
should be attempted. Some attention may be given 
during this period also to writing and drawing. 

Second Period. — This period extends from the age of 
ten to about the age of fifteen. During this period Per- 
ception is still active, but Memory is now also rapidly 
developed. The child now not only observes more 
closely, but, as his memory grows stronger, he is better 
able to glean knowledge from the printed page, and re- 
tain it. The accumulation of facts should continue to 
be an important part of the learner's work, but his 
mind should be trained also to habits of accurate recol- 
lection. It is not enough that the mind be able to re- 
tain the knowledge gained ; it must also be able to 
reproduce that knowledge accurately. The reasoning 
powers also begin to develop rapidly during this period, 
and the course of studv, as well as the methods of train- 
ing and instruction, must be made to conform to the nat- 
ural development of the mind. 

In Mathematics the child during, this period should 



36 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

have a thorough drill in both oral and written methods 
of arithmetic. He ought also to complete the study of 
algebra and the elements of geometry. 

In Language he should give much attention to read- 
ing, spelling, and composition. During this period he 
should begin the study of practical grammar, and be 
trained to make the correct application of its principles 
in his own speech and writing. He should also be 
taught the use of the dictionary, the origin and deriva- 
tion of words, and the use of synonyms. His taste for 
literature may be cultivated to some extent by commit- 
ting to memory declamations and choice extracts of both 
prose and poetry. He should also be trained to habits 
of reading, and, if it is desirable to acquaint him with 
other languages than his own, this is the period of life 
in which the work should be begun. 

In the Physical Sciences he should be made acquainted 
with the elementary truths and principles of physical 
geography, physiology, botany, natural philosophy, and, 
to some extent, chemistry and geology, though these lat- 
ter should not yet be pursued as formal studies. In all 
these the teacher should illustrate largely, permitting the 
pupils also to make experiments for themselves, and thus 
make the knowledge gained all the more impressive. 

In Geography the pupil should during this period 
complete the ordinary textbook and have a fair kno\v T - 
ledge of political, descriptive, and mathematical geog- 
raphy. 

In History he ought to complete the elementary his- 
tory of his own country, and read considerably on gen- 
eral biography, travels, and explorations. He ought to 
gain some knowledge of the prominent events of the 



IMPORTANT EDUCATIONAL PRINCIPLES. 37 

world's history, as well as a knowledge of the world's 
most noted characters, such as Csesar, Cromwell, Demos- 
thenes, Shakespeare, Frederick the Great, Washington, 
and Columbus. 

In the Arts he should during this period learn to sing 
by note, gain a knowledge of the science of music, be 
able to write legibly, and draw with correctness and 
ease. He may also gain some skill in performing on 
one or more musical instruments. 

The Third Period. — This period extends from the age 
of fifteen to the age of manhood, twenty-one. All the 
powers of the mind are now active, and the learner is 
prepared to take up in their regular order the usual 
studies of the technical school course. 

In Mathematics the course may embrace the higher 
mathematics, both pure and applied. 

In Language the course should embrace higher gram- 
mar, rhetoric, the critical study of classics, general liter- 
ature, philology, etc. The student should also be directed 
in a course of general reading, such as will give him 
broad culture and a thorough knowledge of the style 
and modes of thought of the classical writers of both 
prose and poetry. He should also have much practice 
in composition and speaking. 

In the Physical Sciences he should pursue a full 
course, including mechanics, optics, acoustics, electricity, 
astronomy, chemistry, anatomy, physiology, zoology, 
geology, and mineralogy. 

In History the course should embrace not only a his- 
tory of one's own country, but a complete history of the 
world in general, and a detailed history of the most im- 
portant countries — England, Ireland, France, Germany, 



38 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

Spain, Greece, Rome, and others ; to which may be add- 
ed a course in the philosophy of history. 

The course in the Arts raav be continued, and be 
made to embrace the higher departments of music, 
painting, and drawing, including architecture and land- 
scape-gardening. 

To these courses may be added a course in mental and 
moral philosophy, logic, political economy, aesthetics, in- 
ternational law, the evidences of natural and revealed 
religion, and rational psychology. 

5. The Order of Instruction must be from the Concrete 
to the Abstract. — The child first learns to recognize ob- 
jects, and afterward their qualities, and, by comparison, 
their relations. It begins with the concrete. The ideas 
of qualities are associated with the objects in which it 
first perceives the quality, but subsequently it learns to 
distinguish the quality independent of the object with 
w T hich it is associated, and thus gains a notion of abstract 
quality. Thus, at first it simply associates the idea of 
hardness with marble or stone or iron, but after a time 
it has a conception of the quality hardness independent 
of any particular object, and thus reaches an abstract 
notion or idea. * 

This natural method of thought indicates that the 
teacher should make his methods conform to the natural 
mode of mental operation. His first teaching should 
therefore be in connection with objects or concrete ex- 
amples, and the teacher should be very cautious not to 
pass too rapidly from the concrete to the abstract. The 
character of the individual minds and their comparative 
order of development must also be closely watched in 



IMPORTANT EDUCATIONAL PRINCIPLES. 39 

this respect, for some grasp an abstract notion at a much 
earlier time of life than do many others. 

6. All Primary Instruction must Proceed from the Known 
to the Unknown. — Things which are unknown can be il- 
lustrated and explained only by that which is well 
known. The teacher, therefore, should begin to teach 
just where the learner's knowledge ends, or rather start 
from that which the learner understands well, and pro- 
ceed to the kindred fact to be learned. A child should 
be taught the relation of the new fact or truth to be 
learned to that which he already knows. What the 
child already knows should be the foundation on which 
to place the next truth or fact as an addition to the 
structure to be erected. 

This proposition by no means argues that a child 
should never learn a truth without first understanding 
it. There are statements which he must take on faith, 
and await the future explanation. It is sometimes ne- 
cessary to teach a principle whose relations and whose 
explanation the child is not yet prepared to under- 
stand. 

7. Instruction should First be Inductive, then Deductive. 
— The child's knowledge begins with its observation of 
individuals and of individual facts. From individuals 
it passes by the inductive process to groups, then to qual- 
ities, and finally to general laws and principles. This is 
the natural order, and it indicates to the teacher the 
order to be pursued in the method of instruction. In 
arithmetic the mechanical process of solution must pre- 
cede the rule. In geography the individual facts must 



40 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

be taught before the laws and causes. In grammar the 
forms of speech should be taught before the rules which 
govern these forms ; and thus throughout, in primary 
instruction, the particular should precede the general. 
Facts should precede principles. 

As the mind develops, the two processes of instruction 
may be combined to some extent, until finally we reach a 
point where it is proper to pursue the deductive method 
almost wholly, as in the higher departments of grammar, 
where the rule or principle is stated and the application 
made to current forms of speech. The deductive meth- 
od is appropriate also to the teaching of natural philos- 
ophy, higher mathematics, and in general to all advanced 
instruction. 

8. Ideas should be Taught before Words. — This is the 
natural order in the acquisition of knowledge. The 
child, in examining an object, first observes, and then 
inquires, What is it ? A knowledge of objects should 
precede a knowledge of names, just as our thoughts pre- 
cede the sentences by which we express them. Ideas 
and thoughts differ. An idea is properly a notion of 
any thing, quality, action, etc., and is usually represented 
by a single word, as boy, tall, sings. A thought is a com- 
bination of ideas. It is usually expressed by a sentence, 
as " The tall boy sings/' " Chalk is brittle." The na- 
tural order is, first the idea, then the name — first the 
thought, then the sentence or definition. This order of 
mental acquisition must be observed in all our teaching, 
particularly in all primary teaching. 

9. Observation is the Source of All Knowledge. — All 



IM PORTA NT EDUCATIONAL PRINCIPLES. 41 

knowledge of the outward world is conveyed to us 
through the senses, and this forms the basis of all our 
knowledge. It is specially important, therefore, that 
the senses receive careful training. This result may be 
secured by giving a systematic course of object-teaching. 
It is particularly important that sight and hearing re- 
ceive systematic culture, as these two senses enter most 
largely into the intellectual processes. Intelligence and 
acuteness of these senses are important elements in the 
work of education. 

10. The Age and Capacity of the Pupil should Modify 
the Methods of Teaching. — Such methods should be pur- 
sued in early life as will tend to give culture, particularly 
to the perceptive power and the memory, while methods 
requiring an exercise of the understanding or the reason 
should be reserved for advanced instruction at a later 
period of life. Many errors might be indicated in this 
respect in the various schools of the land. 

Not only age, but also the capacity of the pupil, 
should modify both studies and methods. The teacher 
should so present subjects to be taught that the parts 
most readily understood may first be grasped by the 
child, and those more difficult be reserved for subsequent 
presentation. It is the work of the teacher to show pu- 
pils how to study, and indicate the order in which knowl- 
edge is most readily and most profitably acquired. 

6 



PAET II. 

METHODS OF INSTRUCTION. 



OBJECT-LESSONS. 

I. The Nature and Design of Object-Lessons. 

Object-Lessons are lessons given on objects with the 
purpose of developing the mental faculties of children 
and cultivating habits of ready and accurate observation. 
They are also designed to impart elementary instruction 
in the facts and principles of the different sciences. 

Lessons on objects given by the teacher for the mere 
purpose of conveying instruction or valuable information 
to the minds of the children, but without being adapted 
to the order of mental development, and without any 
systematic arrangement, are not object-lessons in the 
true sense, however valuable the knowledge presented 
by them. 

A system of object-lessons should be graded and adapt- 
ed to the natural development of the child-mind. It also 
should begin with the simpler facts and proceed gradually 
to the more abstruse and complex. The capacity of chil- 
dren at the various stages of mind-growth must be a gov- 
erning principle here as in all other instruction. 

42 



OBJECT-LESSONS. 43 

The excellent suggestions given below are made by 
Superintendent N. A. Calkins of New York City in 
his admirable work on Primary Object- Lessons, where 
he divides the stages of object-teaching as follows : 

" First Stage. During this period the pupil may be 
required to distinguish objects by their names, to obseme 
and name the principal parts, to describe their form, color, 
and uses. 

" Second Stage. During this period, which may com- 
mence in the second year of school-life, the lessons should 
embrace the form, color, size, material, qualities, and uses 
of objects, and answers to the simple inquiry, Where 06- 
tained f or, By whom made f 

" Third Stage. During this period, which should com- 
mence in the third year of school-life, the lessons may 
include a more complete analysis of the several proper- 
ties of objects, and attention to the adaptation of their 
prominent qualities to the purposes for which these 
objects are commonly used." 

2. The History of Object-Teaching. 

Object-teaching is one of the chief principles on which 
Pestalozzi's system is based. Indeed, it is usually regarded 
as the chief and most distinctive principle of that cele- 
brated teacher's code. He held that the observing powers 
should be trained to perceive by examining real objects, 
and that it is the office of books to supplement the knowl- 
edge gained by personal experience. To him is usually 
given the credit of having originated this system of in- 
struction, but improperly so. It is true that Pestalozzi 
made it a fundamental principle of all his teaching, and 
employed it at the schools of Burgdorf and Yverdon, 



44 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

but Locke, Commenius, and others advocated the same 
system of instruction in advance of Pestalozzi. The 
system has been followed by the best teachers ever since 
teaching began, for all illustrations by objects is in a sense 
object-teaching, and all good teachers have resorted to this 
sort of illustration, though not all have done so in a sys- 
tematic way. 

3. The Advantages of Object-Lessons. 

Object-lessons, conducted systematically, are of great 
value, both in conveying elementary instruction and in 
giving proper mental development. Their chief advan- 
tages are the following*: 

1. Object- Lessons cultivate Attention. — Knowledge pre- 
sented by means of objects is put before the pupils in the 
most interesting manner. The illustration being such as 
they can comprehend, their thoughts are centred on the 
object, and the mind, instead of wandering from one point 
to another, is attentive to the lesson taught at the time. 
The earnest teacher who presents interesting facts rela- 
tive to the object which forms the basis of the lesson can- 
not fail to give the attention of his pupils most valuable 
culture. 

2. Object-Lessons give Culture to the Power of Perception. 
— This will be plain from the very nature of object-lessons. 
The child observes in order that he may distinguish, de- 
scribe, and gain information. His mind is attentively 
directed to similarities and differences in the qualities 
of the objects which he examines. He becomes more 
and more interested as he gains more and more infor- 
mation, but all this time his power of Perception is 
receiving culture and becoming more fully developed. 



OBJECT-LESSOXS. 45 

His observation leads him to distinguish points of re- 
semblance or difference which pass unnoticed by those 
who do not have the advantage of a systematic course 
of this kind of culture. 

3. Object- Lessons give Culture to the Memory — Every 
faculty of mind is cultured by exercise ; the knowledge, 
therefore, communicated in a series of lessons on objects, 
in order to be recalled and be of use in the future, must 
be received by the memory, and be retained there until the 
occasion arises which demands its use, when it is recollect- 
ed or recalled. This effort at retaining the knowledge 
imparted is of course a valuable aid in memory-culture. 

4. Object-Lessons give Culture to the Imagination. — The 
pictures of objects retained in the mind are recalled by the 
memory. These may in turn be remodeled and be pre- 
sented to the mind in ideal forms, and thus give culture 
to the Imagination. The child whose perception has 
given him the idea of a house proceeds at once to con- 
struct one of sticks, paper, or other convenient material. 
He is not satisfied to retain the knowledge as it comes to 
him, but forms ideal pictures, and attempts to illustrate 
them with such material as he mav have at hand. 

5. Object-Lessons give Culture to the Judgment. — By a 
true system of object-lessons the child uses all his senses; 
he not only looks at an object, but he also puts his hand 
on it and judges its temperature, he lifts it and determines 
its weight, he carries it to his nose and ascertains its odor, 
he presses it and learns its density, he applies his tongue 
to find whether or not it has any taste, he raps on it with 
his knuckles to hear whether it gives forth any sound, 
and if so, what kind ; and all this time he makes com- 
parisons and judges of its qualities as compared with those 



46 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

of other objects or with some definite standard, thus giv- 
ing exercise and culture to the Judgment. 

6. Object- Lessons give Culture in Language, — As chil- 
dren gain new ideas and thoughts they require new words 
to express them. The careful teacher is able to give 
much incidental instruction in the composition and struc- 
ture of sentences as he gives the object-lesson. Children 
also learn to express themselves more fluently and more 
correctly as their pow r er of perception becomes more ac- 
curate and they more readily distinguish differences and 
resemblances. 

7. Object- Lessons enable the Teacher to Present Knowl- 
edge in a Concrete Form, — Having the object for illustra- 
tion, the pupil more readily understands and comprehends 
the knowledge imparted. Knowledge is thus presented in 
a concrete form, and the child is thus methodical! v made 
to learn facts, phenomena, words, etc. in a form most in- 
teresting to the learner. 

8. Object-Lessons afford Opportunities for Imparting 
General Information, — The teacher need not confine 
himself to a rigid routine in giving a course of object- 
lessons. Many incidental facts may be taught, many 
incidental questions may be judiciously answered, much 
curiosity may be aroused and gratified ; and all this will 
afford the teacher an excellent opportunity for imparting 
valuable information in away which will make it impres- 
sive and readily remembered. 

9. Object-Lessons train Pupils to Think, — Training to 
think is the most valuable part of education. Object- 
lessons, in which the child is permitted to make inquiries 
of the teacher, examine closely and critically the qualities 
of the object which is the topic of the lesson, and have 



OBJECT-LESSONS. 47 

his curiosity gratified, are well calculated to develop 
thought in the mind of the child, and in this way are 
especially valuable as an incentive. 

10. Object- Lessons make Thought Systematic. — Pupils 
are not only trained to think, but they think systemat- 
ically. When they look at an object to discover its 
different parts, they examine closely. They notice e* 7 ery 
quality and every action. They ascertain in what it is 
similar to other objects which they have examined, and 
in what respect it differs. Thought becomes a habit. 
Attention is undivided, and what the pupil learns he 
knows, because he fixes it in his mind in a systematic 
way. 

11. Object- Lessons create \ Inter 'est in Study. — The child 
that becomes interested in his studies becomes interested 
in the school, and the battle is half won. The teacher 
who can convey knowledge which will attract his pupils 
to him need have little fear of truancy. Nothing is 
better designed to make the school attractive and inter- 
esting than a series of lessons on objects, in which the 
pupil can be made to love knowledge for its own sake, 
while he does not appreciate the necessity of acquiring 
knowledge as a means of culture. 

12. Object- Lessons arouse Interest in the Community. — 
The teacher who can create interest in his school will be 
successful also in awaking an interest in school-matters 
in the community. The means of creating a spirit of 
inquiry in the community by systematic object-lessons 
in the school should not be overlooked. The writer 
when but a mere boy set a whole neighborhood to dis- 
cussing by asking in school while giving an object-les- 
son the simple question, " Why is it that when a single 



43 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

stalk of corn grows in a garden the ears are very rarely- 
perfect ?" Every one in that community — for it was a 
farming region — had noticed the fact, but few could 
give the reason. The interest became still greater when 
a second question was added, as follows : " Why does 
every ear of corn have an even number of rows of 
grains ?" No better plan can be devised to arouse an in- 
terest on the part of patrons than that of creating a 
spirit of inquiry, first on the part of the pupils, and 
through them on the part of the parents. 

Many other reasons might be given why object-les- 
sons are valuable, showing that they aiford important 
elementary knowledge; that the knowledge imparted 
may be greatly varied ; that school-life may, by means 
of object-lessons, be made more pleasant; that they cre- 
ate a desire for knowledge; that this is the natural 
method of imparting knowledge to beginners, etc. ; but 
these need only be mentioned. 

4. The Preparation Needed for Object-Lessons. 

The Material. — As has been said, in order that object- 
lessons may be valuable, and that the time employed 
may not be wasted by unsystematic effort, all lessons on 
objects should be systematic, well graded, and adapted 
to the capacity of the learner. 

Every school should be well provided with the neces- 
sarv material to make the work most effective. There 
should be cabinets of leaves, grains, grasses, minerals, 
metals, coins, specimens of wood, insects, etc. There 
should also be charts of colors, geometrical forms, plants, 
leaves, and illustrations of natural history in general. 
To these should be added sets of mathematical forms — 



OBJECT-LESSONS. . 49 

cubes, cones, cylinders, spheres, spheroids, and the like. 
There should also be a quantity of apparatus with which 
to perform simple and inexpensive experiments. Should 
the school-officers fail to supply these, they can be se- 
cured by the plans suggested in the author's work on 
School Management. 

The Teacher's Preparation. — The teacher should of 
course see that all this material is at hand when wanted, 
and that the apparatus is in proper condition to be used, 
in order that no failures may occur or time be wasted. 
He must also be thoroughly prepared on the subject 
which he attempts to teach. He should have at com- 
mand all the knowledge necessary to be communicated. 
In order to secure this result he should consult cyclo- 
psedias, textbooks, and the people by whom he is sur- 
rounded. He may gain much information by visiting 
mechanics, farmers, merchants, and others in the neigh- 
borhood. 

He should also prepare himself as to the method he 
desires to pursue in giving the lesson, so as to arouse the 
greatest interest and promote the ends of true culture. 
He should have an outline, and adhere rigidly to it, 
except as to the matter of conveying incidental knowl- 
edge. 

The Pupil's Preparation. — The subject of the lesson 
should in general be assigned beforehand, in order that 
pupils may think and observe before the recitation is 
called. This will give training to the child's observing' 
powers and make the lesson all the more valuable. In 
the advanced stages of instruction the child should not 
only observe ; he should also read on the subject, and 
glean what knowledge he can in this w r ay. He should 

4 



50 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

also be encouraged to make inquiries of his associates at 
home. This will arouse interest among the patrons, as 
has been heretofore suggested, and in the end prove 
beneficial to both parent and child. 

5. Methods of Object-Lessons. 

The proper order in methods of giving object-lessons 
is the following : 

1. The Children should be Permitted to tell All they 
Know. — The object should be placed where all the mem- 
bers of the class can see it, and then by a series of ques- 
tions previously arranged the teacher should give each 
member of the class a chance to express himself and 
tell what he knows. This will make the lesson of in- 
terest to every one; all will prepare themselves, and 
habits of thinking will be encouraged. It will also 
encourage the children to speak their actual thoughts, 
and speak them naturally, rather than memorize the 
words of a textbook and repeat them listlessly. 

2. The Pupils should be Led to Find Out what they can 
for Themselves.— The pupil, after having exhausted his 
stock of knowledge, should be led to discover for him- 
self by a series of judicious questions prepared by the 
teacher. 

Herbert Spencer says : " To pursue the true course is 
simply to guide the intellect to its appropriate food, and 
to habituate the mind from the beginning to that prac- 
tice of self-help which it must ultimately follow. Chil- 
dren should be led to make their own investigations and 
to draw their own inferences. They should be told as 
little as possible, and induced to discover as much as 
possible. Humanity has progressed solely by self-in- 



OBJECT-LESSONS. 5 1 

struction, and that to achieve the best results each mind 
must progress somewhat after the same fashion is con- 
tinually proved by the marked success of self-made 
men." 

It is the business of the teacher to excite the curiosity 
and create the appetite for knowledge. It is his duty 
also to show the child how this appetite may be gratified, 
but it is not his duty to satisfy it. The child grows 
strong by what it conquers. The less the teacher does 
for it and the more it does for itself, the wiser the meth- 
od of culture. 

3. The Teacher should Communicate such Knowledge as 
the Child cannot Gain by its Own Efforts. — This is the 
last step to be taken in the method of imparting knowl- 
edge by object-lessons. After the pupil has told all he 
can, and the teacher has led him to discover for himself 
everything that is in the child's power to discover, it 
then becomes the duty of the teacher to impart such 
other knowledge as he may possess, and thus add to the 
interest and importance of the lesson. The teacher has 
it in his power to do almost unlimited good by impart- 
ing not only knowledge connected directly with the 
lesson, but such also as may have only an incidental 
bearing. 

To some extent this order of method may be ignored 
where the interest is very great, or where the fact to be 
communicated by the teacher is so important or so inter- 
esting as to make it wise to interfere with the regular meth- 
od by stating the fact when it will be likely to make the 
most lasting impression, or where it will illustrate most 
pointedly a truth or a principle of importance. 



52 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

6. Preliminary Instruction. 

Previous to any definite course of instruction by object- 
lessons children should have some training of the senses. 

The sense of sight should be so cultivated as to-enable 
the child to distinguish the shapes of objects, also their 
size, color, etc. The matter of rapid observation also is 
important. Many exercises may be given to develop the 
quick-sightedness of the child. A child may be made to 
look at the interior of a room for a minute and then state 
what it has seen. An excellent exercise is that of having 
the child describe what it saw during a walk of ten minutes. 
Other plans equally valuable may be devised. 

The sense of healing may be developed by teaching 
the child to distinguish objects by sound, by discrimi- 
nating between high and low, loud and soft, sounds ; 
also to locate objects and to judge distance by sound. 
In a short time it will learn to distinguish persons by 
their footsteps and friends by their voices ; it will also 
learn to distinguish the bark of different dogs, the songs 
of birds, and even the lowing of different cows in a herd. 
All these sounds may be turned to practical advantage in 
the training of hearing. 

The sense of taste may be cultivated by permitting the 
child to distinguish first between those objects whose taste 
is most in contrast, as bitter and sweet, sweet and sour, 
etc., and then by testing the varying degrees of sweet- 
ness, bitterness, and sourness. 

The sense of smell may first be trained by placing 
before the child objects whose odors are strong, being 
careful to contrast those which are agreeable with those 
which are disagreeable as far as possible, as onions and 



OBJECT-LESSONS. 53 

cologne- water, garlic and cinnamon. The child may also 
be taught to distinguish the various kinds of flowers by 
smell, as roses, lilies, pinks, and geraniums, and tken the 
varieties of these ; so also with fruits, plants, spices, and 
vegetables. 

The sense of touch may also be greatly cultivated 
and developed by proper exercise. The child should 
be taught early to distinguish rough and smooth, hard 
and soft, warm and cold. It may then be trained to 
distinguish objects from one another by touch, as books, 
knives, pens, and pencils, and after this the different va- 
rieties of the same kind of object, as the varieties of grain, 
leaves, fruits, coins, or flowers. It may be trained to some 
extent also to distinguish shape as well as size by the sense 
of touch. 

Of course most of these exercises ought to be given 
before the child enters the school, but an enterprising 
teacher will be able to do much, even in school, in the 
way of training the senses, and at the same time create 
much interest and amusement by having an occasional 
short exercise in sense-training. 

7. Cautions to be Regarded. 

The system of teaching by object-lessons, like all other 
systems of teaching, is likely to be abused by those who 
do not fully appreciate the importance of the system and 
the importance of the educational principles on which it 
is based. Errors are likely to be made which may seri- 
ously interfere with the success of the system. The chief 
cautions to be regarded are the following : 

Cautions. — 1. In teaching by object-lessons remember 
that the aim is to secure culture and impart instruction. 



54 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

2. Holding an object before a class and simply asking 
questions as to what it is, what it is for, where it is found, 
is not properly an object-lesson. 

3. Do not tell a child what you can lead him to discover 
for himself. 

4. Do not give the child a number of words to be 
memorized and given in answer to your questions. 

5. Train the child to observe for itself, even though 
its first efforts be erratic and of little practical benefit. 

6. Be careful that the children acquire ideas rather 
than words* 

7. Adapt the subject and the matter of the lesson to 
the capacity of the children to be taught. 

8. Give short rather than long lessons. 

9. Let your lessons be systematic, giving lessons on 
form, color, etc., before you take up those of a fragment- 
ary or promiscuous character. Each lesson should have 
an aim, and should legitimately follow its predecessor. 

10. Do not try to develop in the mind of the child 
thoughts with which he is already familiar. 

11. Do not permit yourself and your pupils to be- 
come so much interested in the objects that you neglect 
the lesson to be derived from the object. 

12. Object-lessons should not be given from books. 
If the teacher cannot trust his memory as to what he 
wants to do, he should have an outline of his work. 
The man who gives an object-lesson must be alive and 
awake in the presence of his class. 

A course of object-lessons should include lessons on 
Form and lessons on Color, since form and color are the 
two qualities of objects to which the child gives most 



OBJECT-LESSONS. 55 

eager attention. To these may be added lessons on the 
Parts of Objects, the general Qualities of Objects, the 
Uses of Objects. 

Lessons on Form. 

Children at an early age learn to distinguish objects 
by their shape or form. It is, indeed, the variety in 
form which first attracts the attention of the child. 
Were all objects of the same shape, they would attract 
no more notice than so many bricks or similarly-shaped 
pieces of timber. The child learns form by the difference 
in shape. It seems proper, therefore, that a course of 
object-lessons should begin with lessons on form. This 
same principle was recognized by Froebel in placing be- 
fore the child the cube, the sphere, and the cylinder as 
the second gift. 

It must be remembered that it is not sufficient to 
point out an object, call attention to its shape, and then 
give the name ; the child himself must be taught to dis- 
tinguish the form and associate the name. He must be 
trained to gain knowledge for himself. He must be led 
to observe closely everything with which he comes in 
contact, and thus train his power of perception and lay 
the foundation for an harmonious mental development. 

The first lessons in form may consist in the selection 
of such objects as those with which the child is familiar. 
But among these should be such as are similar in shape, 
as a ball, an orange, or a marble, to represent the sphere ; 
a pencil, a stick of candy, to represent the cylinder; and 
other objects to represent squares, circles, cubes, and the 
uther geometrical figures. Of course these technical 
names need not be used in the first lessons. Instead of 



56 



METHODS OF TEACHING. 



these the teacher may use the terms ball-shaped, shaped 
like a lead pencil, shaped like a ring, etc. 

These lessons on similarity of shape should be fol- 
lowed by such as distinguish differences in shape, and 
from these the lessons would naturally pass to the ordi- 
nary geometrical forms, including lines, angles, etc. 

If possible, the teacher should have a box or a chart 
of forms. The plane figures may be cut from card- 
board, and the others may be cut from apples or potatoes 
in the absence of the prepared forms which are manufac- 
tured for use in giving a series of these lessons. 

The pupils should also be required to reproduce such 
forms as they can on slate, blackboard, or paper ; it will 
give them pleasant and useful employment, and at the 
same time serve to keep them busy. 

Instruction in geometrical form should begin with 
lines, and from these proceed to angles, surfaces, and 
finally volumes. The lessons on lines should also in- 
clude the positions of lines. The following outline of 
forms may prove valuable : 



f Lines, 

1. Elements, j £$£* 

[ Volumes. 

f Straight, 

2. Lines -j Curved, 

[ Broken. 



3. Position of 
lines 



Oblique, 
Vertical, 
Horizontal, 
Parallel, 
PerpendicU' 
lar. 



4. Angles ■{ Obtuse, 

L Eight. 



f Acute, 



' Triangles, 
Quadrilaterals, 

5. Surfaces.... \ ?™ ta S°™> 
Hexagons, 

Heptagons, etc., 

Circles. 



6. Triangles.. - 



f Equilateral, 

a. Sides... -j Isosceles, 

[ Scalene. 

f Eight-angled, 

b. Angles. -{ Acute-angled, 
Obtuse-angled. 



7. Quadri- 
laterals. 



f Square, 

Parallelograms. j**»gf 

[ Ehomboid. 
. Trapezoid, 
[ Trapezium. 



OBJECT-LESSONS. 



57 



Prism. 



8. Parts of 



' Circumference, 
Diameter, 
Eadius, 
Arc, 
Chord, 9. Volumes. -! p y™™ id > 



' Cube, 
Parallelopiped on, 
Triangular prism, 

etc. 



a circle. ■{ Segment, 
Sector, 



Quadrant, 
Semicircle, 
Semi -circumfer- 
ence. 



Frustum of pyramid, 
Cylinder, 
Cone, 

Frustum of cone, 
Sphere. 



To these might be added the conic sections, parabola, 
hyperbola, and ellipse; also other figures, as the crescent, 
spirals, ovals, hemispheres, and spheroids. 

Lessons in Color. 

The form of objects is taught almost wholly by the use 
of the eye. In a similar manner the eye alone is used to 
determine color. Indeed, sight is the most useful, as it is 
the most nearly perfect, of our senses. Lessons in color 
are therefore valuable in giving training to our most im- 
portant sense. 

Color-Blindness. — Some persons are incapable of distin- 
guishing colors definitely. Many are unable to distinguish 
between green and blue in the sunlight, and a still greater 
number are unable to distinguish between these two colors 
by lamplight. Many also are unable to distinguish any 
of the intermediate colors between black and white. A 
prominent lawyer acquaintance always insisted on calling 
his green satchel red, and I have in mind now a former 
pupil who was afflicted with color-blindness to such an 
extent as to be unable to distinguish red from green, 
both colors appearing the same to him. On pointing 
out a scarlet geranium flower to him, he insisted that 
the scarlet flower and the green leaf had the same color. 
On asking; him how he distinguished the red cherry from 



58 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

the green leaf, his facetious reply was that he had two tests 
— one was by the difference in shape, and the other by the 
difference in taste. 

Prof. Calkins makes the following statements : " That 
the celebrated chemist Dalton thought the red gown in 
which he was installed was a blue one, and that on his 
friends giving him a pair of red stockings to wear, in- 
stead of the white ones he usually wore, he could notice 
no difference except that they appeared to him to be 
rather dirty. 

" Bartholomew the sculptor could not distinguish be- 
tween a crimson curtain and a green one. Yet he began 
his artistic career as a portrait-painter, and once gave the 
cheeks of a female sitter a hue of bright green." 

It was estimated from examinations made in England 
and Scotland "that one person out of every fifteen was 
unable to distinguish all the ordinary colors; one in fifty- 
five confounded red with green; one in sixty, brown with 
green ; one in forty-six, blue with green. 

The causes of color-blindness have not yet been dis- 
covered, nor is it yet known whether early training can 
overcome the defect or not ; but certainly something 
can be done to teach those who are not color-blind to 
distinguish not only color, but shades of color, at an 
early age. 

Every school should be supplied with a chart of col- 
ors, and pupils should be supplied with colored cards or 
worsteds to correspond with the colors on the chart. By 
comparing the colored cards with the chart, and by the 
teacher's requiring the pupil to select colors when named, 
most pupils can be trained to distinguish without diffi- 
culty. 



OBJECT- LESSOXS. 59 

Prof. Calkins advises, in addition to the color-chart 
and colored worsted, " a box of colored cards, a set of 
color cubes, pieces of silk of various colors, sealing-wax, 
wafers, colored papers, flowers and fruits in their season, 
a glass prism, colored crayons for the blackboard, etc." 
He also suggests as a substitute for the color-chart that 
the teacher procure a piece of perforated cardboard and 
work upon it squares of about two inches with colored 
worsteds, leaving inch-spaces between. 

An ingenious contrivance which answers the double 
purpose of numeral frame and color-chart was described 
to me by a young lady, who says she stretches twelve 
wires from one side of the window- frame to the other, 
on which she places spools wound with worsteds of the 
different colors, and in this way is enabled to teach both 
color and number by means of the same piece of ap- 
paratus. 

For a detailed course of lessons on color no book is 
superior to Calkins's Primary Object- Lessons, a work 
which every teacher should possess. 

The first step consists in teaching the three primary 
colors — red, yellow, and blue. The pupil may be taught 
also that these are known as the primary colors because 
they cannot be produced by the combination of any 
other colors. 

In teaching the secondary colors the children should 
be taught that they are named secondary because each 
of them is composed of two other colors ; thus, green is 
a mixture of yellow and blue ; orange, a mixture of red 
and yellow ; purple, a mixture of red and blue. These 
six colors, with the addition of indigo, which is a com- 
bination of purple and blue, are the colors of the rain- 



60 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

bow, and are known as the prismatic colors, because 
when a ray of light is dissolved by means of a prism it 
is found to consist of these colors. 

After pupils are able to distinguish the primary and 
the secondary colors they may be taught to distinguish 
the principal shades, tints, and hues. 

By a shade is meant any color produced by mixing 
some black with the original color, and thus producing 
a darker color; thus, the shades of red are maroon, crim- 
son, magenta, etc.; of yellow, citrine and saffron; of blue, 
indigo, prussian blue, plum-color, etc. 

By a tint is meant any color produced by mixing some 
white with the original color, and thus producing a 
lighter color ; thus, the tints of red are pink, rose, etc. ; 
of yellow, straw and primrose ; of blue, light blue, sky 
blue, etc. 

By a hue is meant the combination of two colors in 
unequal proportions ; thus scarlet, cherry, and vermilion 
are hues of red ; lemon, sulphur, and canary, hues of 
yellow ; salmon and buff, hues of orange; emerald, pea- 
green, sea-green, hues of green. 

The irregular common colors mav also be taught at 
this time, as brown with its varieties, chestnut, chocolate, 
russet, auburn, snuff, etc. ; and gray with its varieties, 
steel-gray, pearly gray, etc. 

Pupils should be trained to distinguish colors that are 
alike ; after that those which are unlike. After this 
they should be required to select objects and group 
them according to color. The words 

Red, Yellow, Blue, White, 

may be written on the board as indicated, and under 
these, or a similar heading on the pupils' slates, the 



OBJECT-LESSONS. 6 1 

children should place the names of objects which have 
the color mentioned. 

They may be taught also by actual experiment with 
paints or crayons the result of mixing colors ; thus, that 
red and blue produce purple; red and yellow, orange ; 
etc. This may be done with water-color paints on pa- 
per, or even with colored crayons on the blackboard. 

The complementary colors, or those which produce 
white light, may be explained to the children. They 
may be taught that of two complementary colors one 
is primary and the other secondary, thus making together 
the three primary colors. These colors may be grouped 
as follows : 

1. Red and preen, < n ' 

fo J { yellow. 

2. Blue and orange, < ,{ 

fe ' ( yellow. 

3. Yellow and purple, < ,1 ' 

Lastly, they may be taught that certain combinations 
of color are pleasing to the eye, because they are harmo- 
nious. The complementary colors are always harmonious. 
The following colors are given, with those with which 
they harmonize : 

Blue. — 1. With salmon, drab, orange, white, straw, 
maize, chestnut, brown, black, or gold. 

2. With scarlet and purple, orange and black, orange 
and green. 

3. With brown, crimson, and gold ; or orange, black, 
and white. 

Black. — 1. With white, orange, maize, scarlet, lilac, 
pink, slate, drab, or buff. 



62 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

2. With yellow and crimson. 

3. With orange, blue, and scarlet. 

Crimson. — 1. With drab, gold, orange, maize, or 
purple. 

Green. — 1. With scarlet, gold, yellow, or orange. 

2. With scarlet and blue. 

3. With crimson, blue, and gold. 

Lilac. — 1. With crimson, gold, maize, cherry, or 
scarlet. 

2. With gold and crimson. 

3. With scarlet, black, and white; yellow, scarlet, and 
white. 

Purple. — 1. With gold, maize, or blue. 

2. With scarlet and gold, or scarlet and white. 

3. With scarlet, blue, and orange. 
Red. — 1. With gold, white, or gray. 

2. With orange and green, or yellow and black. 

3. With gold, black, and white, 

Scarlet. — 1. With slate-color, white, or green. 

2. With black and white, blue and white, or blue and 
yellow. 

3. With blue, black, and yellow. 

White. — 1. With scarlet, crimson, cherry, pink, brown, 
black, or blue. 

Yellow. — 1. With chestnut, brown, red, crimson, black, 
or purple. 

2. With purple and crimson. 

3. With purple, scarlet, and blue. 

Orange. — With blue, black, crimson, or green. 

Harmony of color should always be considered in 
house-decoration, in the choice of furniture, in the ar- 
rangement of rooms, wearing apparel, bouquets, and 



OB JECT-LESSOXS. 6 3 

wherever else there is an opportunity to cultivate the 
taste of children. 

Objects and their Parts. 

In order to give valuable lessons on objects, the teach- 
er should have a collection of various objects on hand 
from which he may select. The object should be placed 
before the class where each pupil may examine it thor- 
oughly and prepare to name the different parts of which 
it consists, together with the use of the object itself and 
the uses of the various parts. The following lesson 
will suggest the method to be pursued : 

MODEL LESSON. 

Subject— A HAT. 

The teacher holds the hat before the class and asks 
the name of it. The name is then spelled and written 
on the blackboard. He then points to a particular part 
of the hat and asks the name. The answer is probably 
body. The word Parts is written on the board, and 
under this the word body. Pupils are asked to name 
other parts as each part is touched in succession by the 
teacher, and all the names given are written in the col- 
umn under the word Parts. The column will probably 
consist of the following : body, brim, crown, band, bind- 
ing, lining, trimming. 

The teacher then asks the pupils to touch particular 
parts of the hat as he names them. He also asks them 
to point to the word on the blackboard while some other 
pupil points to the part and another names it. 

After having learned the parts, the teacher may ask 



64 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

for the use of the hat ; then the use of each individual 
part, and as these uses are mentioned they may be writ- 
ten on the board opposite the parts named. The table 
will stand somewhat as follows : 

Hat. 

Parts. Uses. 

Body : To cover the sides of the head and give shape 

to the hat. 
Brim : To protect the neck and the face from sun- 

light and rain. 
Crown : To cover and protect the top of the head. 
Band: To keep the hat from getting too large; to 

make it look well. 
Binding : To keep the edge of the brim from wearing 

out. 
Lining : To keep the sweat of the head from soiling 

the material of the hat. 
Trimming : To make the hat pretty and attractive. 

As far as possible, the shape and the color of the vari- 
ous parts may also be the topics for questions, and before 
the lesson closes the pupils may be called on individually 
to name each a part of the hat and tell its use, thus, point- 
ing to the brim of the hat: "This is the brim of the hat; 
its use is to protect the head and the neck from sunlight 
and rain." 

Similar lessons may be given on any of the following 
objects : table, chair, stool, bench, box, desk, pencil, bell, 
clock, etc. 

The following list of objects, with the parts named, is 
given with the hope that it may prove valuable to inex- 
perienced teachers : 



OBJECT-LESSONS. 



65 



f Point, 
1. Pin -j Head, 

t Shaft. 

Back, 

2 - ^--^ Legs, 

Koimds. 

Panels, 

Hinges, 

Stiles, 

Eails, 

Latch, 

Lock. 

Blade, 

Bows, 

Limbs, 

Eivet, 

Edges, 

Back, 

Point, 

Shaft. 



5. Key... -j 



f King, 

Shaft, 

Barrel, 
Lip, 
Wards, 
Grooves. 



8. Cup... - 



3. Door. 



4. Scissors. - 



C Handle, 

Bell \ Cup ' 
15ell,,, 1 Tongue, 

[ Mouth. 



Stem, 

Peel, 

Pulp, 

Juice, 1 ' 

Veins, 

Eye, 

Dimples, 

Core, 

Seeds, 

Seed-case. 



9. Cent.. -! 



7. Apple, -j 



Bowl, 
Handle, 
Upper rim, 
Lower rim, 
Bottom, 
Inside, 
Outside, 
L Edges. 



Surface, 

Edges, 

Faces, 

Milling, 

Impression, 

Image, 

Date, 

Superscription. 



10. Knife.. <! 



1. Handle, - 



2. Pivot, 



3. Blade, 



Eivets, 

Frame, 

Heel, 

Sides, 

Back, 

Spring, 

Grooves, 

Plate. 

Edge, 

Point, 

Back, 

Notch, 

Sides, 

Maker's name. 



11. Shoe. <[ 



f Upper, 
Sole, 
Heel, 
Tip, 
Eyelets, 
Binding, 
Seams, 
Tongue, 
Lining, 
Insole, 
Counter, 
Shank, 
Welt, 
Strings, 
Buttons, 
Vamps. 



The teacher will be able to outline a number of other 
topics with sufficient accuracy to make them both inter- 
esting and instructive. 

Lessons similar to the foregoing, but more extended in 
character, maybe given after the children learn to distin- 
guish the respective parts readily; tKus, not only the parts 
of objects and the uses of the parts may be taught, but 
also the material of which the parts consist, where this 
material is obtained, and by what persons the various 
parts are prepared, 

5 



66 



METHODS OF TEACHING. 



Qualities of Objects. 

Following naturally in order after the lessons on the 
parts of objects come lessons on the qualities of objects. 
Thus, in a lesson on glass we could teach that it is trans- 
parent, brittle, smooth, colorless. In connection with this 
might be taught the uses of glass, the kinds of glass, and 
the process of manufacture. Material enough would be 
found in this topic to make a half dozen or more lessons. 

The difference between qualities should be taught by 
illustration ; thus, between rough and smooth, transparent 
and opaque, etc. The names of a number of objects as 
given by the pupils should be written on the blackboard, 
and thus the difference might be impressed more firmly 
on the minds of the children. For instance, in teaching 
children that transparent objects are those through which 
we can see clearly, and that opaque objects are those 
through which we cannot see, let the columns on the 
board be arranged somewhat as follows : 



Glass, 

Water, 

Alcohol, 

Air, 

Some 



ice, J 



are transparent. 



Slate, 

Iron, 

Stone, 

Wood, 

Lead, 

Chalk, 

Tin, 

Silver, 

Gold, 



- are opaque. 



Let the questions be asked, Why do we say glass is 
transparent? Why do we say gold is opaque? 

In a similar manner the difference may be taught 
between 



Hard and soft, 
Brittle and flexible, 



Light and heavy, 
Rough and smooth, 



OBJ ECT-LESSONS. 6 7 

Transparent and translucent, Solid and liquid, 
Combustible and inflammable, Adhesive and cohesive, 
Natural and artificial, Odorous and aromatic ; 

and thus also the qualities indicated by the words flex- 
ible, ductile, elastic, malleable, sonorous, concave, convex, 
spherical, cylindrical, brilliant, soluble, serrated, edible, 
tasteless, nutritious, porous, fibrous, etc. 

A higher course of object-lessons would embrace the 
elements of the various natural sciences — botany, phys- 
iology, geology, mineralogy, zoology, and others. 



LANGUAGE. 

Introduction. 

Language is the means by which we communicate 
our thoughts to one another. The word is derived from 
the Latin lingua, the tongue, and meant, primarily, spoken 
language. The term is now, however, applied to both 
written and spoken language. Language is necessary to 
thought, and it was held by even so eminent an author- 
ity as Sir William Hamilton that there can be no thinking 
without words. 

A course of instruction in Language includes instruc- 
tion in Talking, Reading, Pronunciation, Orthography, 
Lexicology, Grammar, Composition, and Rhetoric. This 
course may be extended in the higher grade to the study 
of English Literature and English Classics, Philology, 
and the various foreign languages. 

Learning to Talk. 

This part of the work is usually completed before the 
child reaches school. At least, the child has already 
learned to use its organs of speech in the articulation 
of the usual sounds of the language it speaks, and it 
already possesses a reasonably full vocabulary. It learns 
its language at the home fireside, partly by imitating 
the speech of its associates, partly by the law of asso- 

68 



INTRODUCTION. 69 

ciation as it hears the names of objects and actions called 
from day to day in the ordinary intercourse of the 
family. 

The teacher has but little to do except correct false 
articulation, mispronunciation learned at home, and add 
to the vocabulary of the child from day to day as he 
communicates knowledge and suggests new ideas. Both 
teacher and parents should be specially careful to use 
only correct speech, in order that the language of the 
child may be correct as a habit ; for this, like all other 
habits, will prove lasting. We are all witnesses in our 
own speech to the truth of this statement. The speak- 
ers and writers who make no mistakes either in pro- 
nunciation or in the grammatical use of language, from 
Shakespeare and Addison down, are indeed rare. 



CHAPTEE I. 
Beading. 

The first important work that the child undertakes 
on entering school is that of learning to read. This 
becomes necessary to all other school-work, and it is 
therefore the first duty the teacher has to perform if the 
child does not already know how to read. 

In learning to read two things are necessary primarily : 
these are, first, that the pupil must learn to read intelli- 
gently — that is, read the page silently, recognizing the 
printed or written signs as words representing thought, 
and have an intelligent understanding of what he reads ; 
secondly, the child must read intelligibly — that is, read 
to others in such a manner that they may understand 
clearly what is meant by the author. To these two pay 
be added two other essentials — that the child must read 
gracefully, and that he must read forcefully — and we 
have # the essence of all good reading and all good elo- 
cution. Formulated, the essentials are these: 

1. The child must read intelligently ; 

2. He must read intelligibly ; 

3. He must read gracefully ; 

4. He must read forcefully. 

All teaching of reading must aim at accomplishing 

these four things. 
70 



BEADING. 71 

I. Objects of Learning to Read. 

The two main objects of teaching a child to read 
are — 

1. To enable him to gain information. 

2. To enable him to impart information. 

These objects must be kept constantly in view. No 
advocate of oral instruction, however extreme, would 
claim that a child should acquire his knowledge entirely 
through the oral instruction of the teacher. Children 
must learn to read in order to acquire knowledge, and 
also that they may impart knowledge to others by 
reading. 

To the foregoing may be added a third object in learn- 
ing to read — namely, pleasure. The pupil learns to read 
partly for the pleasure which it will afford him in after 
life to peruse newspapers, magazines, and books, and not 
only glean from the printed page the news of the day, 
but also be able to enjoy the beauties of thought and 
language with which he meets in his reading of the best 
literature. Under the head of pleasure as an object of 
learning to read may be included also the pleasure which 
elegant reading affords the hearer. We learn to read not 
only that we may please ourselves, but also that we may 
be able to please others. How few there are who can at ran- 
dom take up a newspaper, a magazine, a volume of poems, 
a biographical sketch, or a narrative of travels, and read 
each equally well to their friends or visitors at the home 
fireside ! Fireside reading has been too much neglected 
in our efforts to make elocutionists and dramatic readers. 

Silent reading is important. Indeed, it should be the 



72 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

main purpose in teaching reading to train the pupils to 
think and gather everything possible from the printed 
page. " Systematic reading/' says a prominent elocu- 
tionist, Russell, "is a valued means for cultivating re- 
flective habits of mind, which is study, not perusal — 
reading which is attentively done, carefully reviewed, 
exactly recorded, or orally recounted." 

Much time should be devoted by the pupil to reading 
solely for the sake of reading. It would be wise to 
place in the hands of pupils choice stories, books on 
biography, interesting history, anecdotes, travels, and 
even fiction, with the double purpose of giving them 
enjoyment and creating a taste for reading. This would 
also give an impetus to fireside reading, and create a 
desire for reading such literature as would prove not 
only interesting, but also valuable. Indeed, most of the 
censurable habits into which children unconsciously fall 
while learning to read at school, such as monotone and 
drawl, might be entirely avoided if the habit of silent 
reading were more liberally encouraged at home. 

II. Methods for Beginners. 

The subject of reading may properly be divided into 
Primary Reading and Advanced Reading, the latter 
usually known as Elocution. 

In the teaching of reading to beginners pronunciation 
and articulation are important elements to be consid- 
ered ; but the great mistake which has characterized, and 
w T hich does characterize, most of our schools, even to- 
day, is the teaching of pronunciation for reading proper. 
It must be remembered that pronunciation is but an ele?- 
ment of reading, and not reading itself. When pupils, 



• READING. 7.3 

therefore, pronounce the words of the lesson without giv- 
ing proper expression, they do not read, any more than 
when they pronounce the words in the columns of a 
spelling-book ; and yet it would be safe to say that this 
is called reading in nine-tenths of the schools of Amer- 
ica to-day. It is simply pronunciation. 

Care must be taken to adapt the sentiment and diffi- 
culties in all books on reading to the capacity of the 
pupils to be taught. It is the failure to do this that has 
so often led the pupil to fall back on the pronunciation 
of words alone as being true reading. It is quite as 
easy for the pupil to read or say naturally, " This is my 
horse," or " I have a little kitten," as it is to read, " I 
am up," " We go up," " Up we go," and similar absurd- 
ities, besides being a great deal more natural and more 
sensible. The child learns to recognize horses, cows, etc. 
quite as readily as it recognizes gnats, mosquitoes, or other 
insects. It is not the size of the w T ord, any more than it 
is the size of the animal, that makes its form familiar. 

No one doubts or questions the importance of being 
able to read well either orally or silently, but to secure 
this result the first efforts must be put forth in the direc- 
tion of having the child read intelligently ; and to secure 
this intelligent reading must be at first the chief work of 
the teacher. Intelligent reading leads to intelligible and 
expressive reading, and it should begin with the first sen- 
tence the child attempts to express. 

There is no good reason why a child should ever be 
permitted to drawl a sentence or read it in monotone, any 
more than there is for his drawling out the words in his 
conversation, however animated it ought to be. Here 'is 
the first skirmish, and, this once having been won, the 



74 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

battle is easily fought at all other points. More than 
three-fourths of the teacher's work in the reading-class 
consists in a continuous struggle to correct a habit which 
the pupil ought never to have been permitted to contract. 

In the beginning-steps of teaching a child to read a 
number of methods have been devised to enable him to 
call the words of a sentence. The most important of these 
are known, respectively, as — 

1. The Alphabetic Method; 

2. The Word-Building Method ; 

3. The Word Method ; 

4. The Object Method ; 

5. The Phonic Method ; 

6. The Phonetic Method; 

7. The Sentence Method ; 

8. The Group Method. 

1. The Alphabetic Method. 

By this method, which was formerly in general use, 
and which is much used even yet, the pupil is taught 
first the letters of the alphabet, either wholly or in part. 
When he is familiar with these, he is made to synthetize 
words by naming the letters of which the words are com- 
posed, or, as it was formerly termed, " spell on the book," 
and then pronounce the combination. But little if any 
attention is paid in this method to the meaning of 
words. 

One of the chief objections to the method is, that the 
child is taught words instead of ideas. In this respect 
the rule that the child should begin with intelligent read- 



HEADING. 75 

jng is violated. The pupil begins to read without un- 
derstanding what he reads, and is therefore unable to 
express himself in such a manner as to be understood 
by others. 

A second objection is, that the pupil by this method at- 
tempts to read and spell at the same time, and thus does 
neither well. Indeed., his attention is often distracted from 
the sentiment to be expressed while he is attempting to 
decipher a word by " spelling it out," and thus he falls 
naturally into a drawling tone, holding on to one word 
until he is sure of the next. 

• 2. The Word-Building Method. 

The Word-Building Method is a modification of the 
Alphabetic Method. It begins with a few letters of the 
alphabet, a, i, o, and adds to these other letters to form 
words. Thus, to the letter o is added n, and the child is 
taught that the two letters form the word on; to this is 
added e, and the child is taught that the new product is 
the word one ; thus also is added t to make tone, and s to 
make stone. The method was in use in Europe about 
half a century ago, and it was used also in this country 
to a limited extent for some time. 

It is a pleasant exercise for the purpose of giviug 
variety to the school-work, but inasmuch as our lan- 
guage is not built up by individual letters, but rather 
by words, it is apt to lead the pupil into etymological 
errors which may require years of the best teaching to 
eradicate. On is not formed from o, nor one from on, 
nor tone from one. The system, to say the best of it, 
is one that ought to be pursued only as an occasional 
exercise. 



76 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

3. The Word Method. 

The Word Method begins by teaching words as wholes, 
just as children learn to recognize objects as wholes rather 
than by noticing the individual parts of which they are 
composed. Among the first to use this method in this 
country was Professor Webb, after whom it was for a 
time named "the Webb Method." In England it is 
generally known as the " Look-and-Say Method," also as 
the method of " Reading without Spelling." Among the 
first to advocate this method was a French philosopher, 
Jactotet, who lived from 1770 to 1840. 

This method teaches words as the representatives of 
things, actions, relations, etc. It does not teach the 
alphabet at all, but leaves the pupils to learn the names 
of the letters after they have acquired a knowledge of 
a sufficient number of word-forms to begin reading. 
When properly used, the Word Method begins with the 
oral or spoken word, and then introduces to the pupil 
the printed or written form which represents it. The 
correct principle is — first the idea, then the spoken word, 
and following this the printed or written form. 

The Word Method is one of the most valuable, and is 
the method mainly used by progressive teachers. It is 
closely related to what may be denominated the Object 
Method, which is here given more in detail. 

4. The Object Method. 

This method, as has been said, is similar in many re- 
spects to the Word Method. It, however, begins far- 
ther back than the Word Method. It begins not with the 
word, but with the object itself. The attention of the 
pupils is directed to some object with which they are 



READING. 77 

familiar. The object is shown to the class, or, in the 
absence of the object, a picture of it. The name is given 
by the pupils, and then this name is both printed and 
written on the blackboard or pointed out on a card. 
The pupil is then taught to distinguish the word from 
the picture. By some teachers the child is taught to 
distinguish between the object and the picture, but this 
is wholly unnecessary to correct teaching. Besides, 
there are but few suitable objects, particularly of the 
animal kind, which the teacher can with safety bring 
into the school-room without attracting more attention 
than he would find desirable. 

After the child has learned to associate the word-form 
with the picture, the manner of teaching by the Object 
Method does not differ essentially from that of the Word 
Method. 

The chief value of the Object Method lies in the fact 
that it is the natural method, and it best harmonizes with 
the law of mental development. The child, seeing the 
object, has first the idea, then the spoken name, and lastly 
it becomes familiar with the printed and the written name, 
thus proceeding regularly from the known to the un- 
known in its acquisition of knowledge. Words by this 
method are taught as the representatives of the objects 
and their spoken names. 

After the pupils have become familiar with a few 
word-forms as learned by the Object Method, they may 
be required to reproduce these, and at the same time 
analyze the words into the letters of which they are 
composed. This will be found a valuable exercise in 
fixing the form of the word in the mind of the child. 

To illustrate : Take the word hat After the children 



78 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

have been taught to distinguish the form as placed on the 
blackboard by the teacher, let them select the same word 
on a reading-chart, or from the reading-bcok, or from 
among several words placed on the blackboard ; then let 
them proceed to copy the word on their slates, the teacher 
first having erased from the board all other words except 
this one. The children may even be permitted to go to 
the blackboard and with crayon write or print the word a 
number of times on the board. They enjoy this part of 
the work, and unless they become noisy there seems to be 
no good reason why they should not be indulged in it, 
particularly as a reward for good conduct. 

A second step in this method is that suggested above, 
of having the pupils analyze the word into the letters 
of which it is composed. Thus, in the word hat; let it 
be printed somewhat as follows, first as a whole and 
then with the letters separated : 

hat 
li a t 
Also written, as follows : 



/ 




€1 



Let the pupil have exercise in both the printing and the 
writing of the word, but at the earliest possible moment 
dispense with the printing entirely as an exercise, except 
for the purpose of training him to learn to recognize read- 
ily the printed form. Pupils will make much more rapid 
progress if taught early to write their lessons instead of 
printing them on the slate, and much valuable time will 
also be saved. 



READING. 79 

As a third step the pupil may be readily taught the 
sounds which compose the words. The easiest plan to 
reach this result is to have him pronounce the word in 
imitation of the teacher, as heard in ordinary conversa- 
tion or good reading, then pronounce it more slowly, still 
imitating the teachers pronunciation, and finally separate 
the sounds from one another, making each one distinct 
when uttered. The teacher is of course the guide, and 
the pupil continues to imitate until he is able to deal 
with words without the teacher's help, and name both 
the letters and the sounds of which a word is composed, 
or until he is able to spell the word both literally and 
phonically. 

5. The Phonic Method. 

This method consists chiefly in teaching children the 
elementary sounds of the language, rather than their 
names, and then having the children use these sounds 
in learning to read. Thus, in teaching the word man, 
the child is taught not the letters m, a, n, but the sounds 
represented by these letters. 

The most serious objection to this method lies in the 
fact that the English language has only twenty-six let- 
ters, while it has fully forty elementary sounds. The 
child has no sooner learned that a has a short sound, 
as in at, than he meets it with a long sound, as in ate; 
and he learns soon thereafter that it has a still different 
sound in far, and yet another in fall, while in the word 
fare the sound differs from the other four. The method 
is impracticable in any language where the number of 
elementary sounds is so much greater than the number 
of characters to represent them ; it is impracticable also 



80 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

where the same sound is represented by several characters 
or combinations, and where the use of silent letters is one 
of the peculiarities of the language. 

Another defect of the Phonic Method lies in the fact 
that it is unphilosophical, because it begins with individ- 
ual sounds, which the child gan know only by hearing 
the teacher articulate them, and proceeds to the words 
of which these sounds are elements. It begins with the 
unknown and proceeds to the known, thus violating one 
of tlie most important educational principles. 

6. The Phonetic Method. 

This method differs from the Phonic Method in requir- 
ing a special character to represent each sound. It uses the 
present alphabet to designate twenty-six of the sounds, 
a variable letter always representing that sound of the 
letter most frequently used, and provides slight modifi- 
cations of the letter-forms to represent the other sounds. 
Thus, all sounds of a except the short sound are by this 
system represented by modifications of the character a. 

In print the silent letters appear in very light, hair- 
line type, and those letters which are sounded in heavier 
type. 

A modification of the Phonetic Method is that indica- 
ted by placing the macron (-), the breve (~), and other 
diacritical marks with the letters as found in the standard 
dictionaries. 

Another modification of the Phonetic Method is that 
known as the Phonotypic Method, which consists in pro- 
viding a special character for each sound of the language. 
The pupil's alphabet is made to consist of forty or more 
characters instead of twenty-six. 



READING. 81 

It may be said of the Phonetic Method that, while it 
is more rational than the Phonic, it still is open to serious 
objections, and can be used effectively only in a language 
whose whole literature is printed in the characters which 
the child is taught at school. It simply postpones for a 
time the difficulties which the child must overcome in 
learning to read. 

7. The Sentence Method. 

This method begins with sentences rather than letters 
or words. The thought is expressed first orally, and then 
the printed or written expression is presented and taught. 
The method is based on the theory that the sentence is the 
unit of language ; in other words, that we think in sen- 
tences rather than in words, and that we ought therefore 
to read in sentences rather than in words. 

It is held by the advocates of this method that the 
eye always keeps in advance of the voice, and that we 
shape our expression by the general thought rather than 
by the individual words of the paragraph. It is claimed 
also that pupils who learn to read by this method learn 
to express themselves more naturally. 

The opponents of this method urge the following 
objections : 

1. That the word, and not the sentence, is the unit of 
language. 

2. That pupils who learn by this method soon begin 
to recognize the separate words, and consequently read 
by words rather than by sentences. 

3. That it is impossible to teach all, or even a large 
number, of sentences in this way, and consequently the 
pupil must, after all, ultimately learn to read by words- 

6 



82 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

8. The Group Method. 

The Group Method is based on the Object Method and 
the Word Method combined. While it is true that the 
word is the unit of language, the pupil who reads words 
as words, without considering their relations to other 
words, invariably falls into the monotonous drawl so 
characteristic of beginners. 

The Group Method takes the pupils from the point to 
which the Object and the Word Method have carried 
them, and teaches them to read words in combinations 
according to their relations. Thus, in reading the ex- 
pression " a cat," the child is not permitted to give as 
much force to the word a as to the word cat; he rather 
combines the two words as if they constituted but one, 
of which the syllable cat receives the accent. 

This same principle may be further illustrated by fol- 
lowing out the natural grammatical divisions of the sen- 
tence. Thus, the sentences below naturally divide in 
expressive reading into subject, predicate, and modifiers, 
and are read with short natural pauses between, as indi- 
cated : 

The boy has gone. 

I have found my knife. 

The little bird sang from her nest 

in the tree. 

You have seen the boy coming 

to school very late. 

Make an unnatural or ungrammatical division of 
these sentences and attempt to read them thus, and the 
importance of group-reading will appear at once. Thus, 



READING. 83 

The boy has gone. 

I have found my knife. 

The little bird sang from her nest 

in the tree. 

You have seen the boy coming to 

school very late. 

The Group Method trains pupils to read words in 
groups as they are used in conversation ; and no method 
is more effective in breaking up monotone and giving 
proper expression, which, after all, is quite as important 
as distinct articulation and correct pronunciation. All 
other methods aim primarily at teaching pronunciation, 
or the calling of words, as distinct from reading proper; 
and every other method, therefore, to be of any value 
must be associated with the Group Method, whose office 
it is to develop expression and train pupils not to call 
words only, but to read in the truest and best sense of 
the term. 

It will be noticed that the methods for which the 
greatest merit is claimed are the Object Method, the 
Word Method, and the Group Method. It may be 
said here, also, that the Alphabetic Method is not with- 
out some merit, and that, after all, it will be found that 
a large part of the teaching of those w r ho are most suc- 
cessful comes back to the alphabet finally as the ground- 
work on which to build. 

The argument which holds good with reference to the 
Sentence Method is equally good with reference to the 
Word Method. We cannot learn manv sentences, it is 
said, as wholes, but we learn the words instead ; nor 
can we learn a large number of words as wholes except 



84 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

by long experience. In all our teaching, therefore, we find 
it convenient, after having taught a vocabulary of from 
sixty to a hundred words, to analyze these words into the 
letters of which they are composed ; and practically we 
teach the letters of the alphabet at some time, whatever 
may be our theory or however it may contradict our 
practice. 

We do teach the alphabet, and our pupils, like our- 
selves, whenever they meet a word new to them, make 
an effort to pronounce it from their knowledge of the 
letters of which it is composed and the powers which 
those letters have under various forms of combination. 
If that knowledge be defective, the pronunciation may 
be incorrect, but it will be correct or approach correct- 
ness according to our knowledge of the powers of the 
letters. Were this not the case, our knowledge of pro- 
nunciation must end with the reading-lesson given by 
the teacher, and our progress with our school-days. 

Pupils learn new words by their analogy of form. Let 
the teacher, after having given an interesting lesson on 
the word hat, and placed the word on the blackboard, 
write a number of words of similar form in the same 
column or in several columns, as follows : 



bat 


hat 


rat 


cat 


mat 


sat 


fat 


pat 


vat 



The pupils will readily learn to pronounce the whole of 
them in a very short time if they know the letters of the 
alphabet. They may miss the word cat and call it sat, 
because the name of the latter may mislead them, but 
they will not mispronounce the others if the teacher is 



READING. 85 

careful to call their attention to the shape of the mouth 
while pronouncing the first letter of the word. Thus, by 
a single lesson they may learn eight or nine words, where 
by the Word Method alone it would require a much longer 
time. 

A great number of words may be given in this same 
way in which it is necessary to make only a slight change 
in the form of each word. The following will serve as 
an example : 



get 


bin 


bit 


den 


bun 


cot 


let 


din 


fit 


hen 


dun 


dot 


met 


fin 


hit 


men 


fun 


got 


net 


kin 


lit 


pen 


gun 


hot 


pet 


pin 


mit 


ten 


pun 


lot 


set 


sin 


sit 


fen 


run 


not 


wet 


tin 


pit 


wen 


sun 


rot 



An excellent exercise is that of giving the pupils in 
class the termination, and allowing them to form the 
words ; thus, give them such terminations as an, at, on, 
ot, etc., and let them form words by prefixing various 
letters. Some of them* will write many more words than 
others, but all will be benefited by the exercise. 

By this method of teaching, the alphabet, pronuncia- 
tion, and elementary reading are all closely associated, 
and it would be difficult to separate the processes, even 
if it were desirable. 

Suggestions on Teaching Primary Reading. 

The following suggestions will be of value to the 
teacher, whatever may be the method he pursues in 
teaching Primary Reading : 



86 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

1. Pronouncing at Sight — Whatever method is pur- 
sued, it is a matter of great importance that before the 
pupil attempts to read aloud he should be able to pro- 
nounce every word in the sentence. This is necessary 
in order that he may give his entire attention to the 
matter of expression, and read naturally; and it can 
be best accomplished by the teacher's giving a drill on 
the pronunciation of the words in the sentence before 
the child is permitted to attempt to give oral expression 
to the sentiment. 

2. Reading in Natural Tones. — Eequire your pupils to 
read in natural tones, such as they are accustomed to use 
in conversation. The fault they will most likely com- 
mit is that of reading either on a high, unnatural key, 
or in tones so low that but few in the class can catch 
the sound distinctly. 

3. Correct Reading. — See that pupils read correctly 
and with proper expression from the beginning. The 
first lessons are the most important, because then the 
habits are formed which will make the pupil either a 
pleasing or a slovenly reader for much of his school- 
life. 

4. Distinct Articulation. — Insist on distinct articula- 
tion. When the vocal organs are yet flexible is the 
time to give drill in the sounds of the language. Fre- 
quent drills on the articulation of the elementary sounds, 
and on combinations of these sounds, will prove specially 
valuable. 

5. Graceful Posture. — See that the posture of your 
pupils while reading is graceful. They should stand 
erect, and in holding a book hold it so that those to 
whom they read can see the movement of the reader's 



READING. 87 

lips. The position of the pupil should be entirely free 
and unrestrained. The book should be held in the left 
hand, and the right hand be kept free to turn the leaves 
or make gestures if necessary. 

6. Traill to Catch the Thought. — It is important for 
pupils to catch the thought of the author, in order that 
they may express it properly when reading. Pupils 
may frequently be trained to think more clearly by a 
series of judicious questions put by the teacher. He 
may awaken thought also by means of a conversation 
with them on the subject and contents of the lesson, 
and sometimes by reading their lesson to them in a 
natural tone and with correct emphasis and inflection. 

7. Make Haste Slowly. — The teacher must not become 
discouraged because the pupils seem to make but slow 
progress. At best, it is tedious work to teach a child 
to read, but a child well taught during the first year 
of^its school-career is well taught for life, and the 
subsequent teaching is comparatively easy. The teacher 
should see that correct habits are formed and that the 
child reads understandingly, even though the progress 
be slow at first. If the foundation be well laid, the 
superstructure will be all the more substantial. 

8. The First Steps. — An interesting exercise, and also 
a valuable one, is that of having pupils fill blanks as the 
teacher supplies a part of each sentence ; thus, the teacher 
may write a single word, say the predicate of a sentence, 
as play, and request the pupils to tell what play. The 
answers may be written on the board, the exercise stand- 
ing somewhat as follows : 

Boys play. 
Girls play. 



88 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

Lambs play. 
Dogs play. 
Etc., etc. 

The pupils should be required to read each of these, 
when it will be found that they naturally emphasize 
the newly-introduced word. The exercise may now 
be changed so that they write predicates instead of 
subjects ; and in reading them it will be found that 
they now emphasize the predicate as the new word 
introduced. 

9. Writing Lessons on Slate. — From the very beginning 
pupils should be required to copy at least a portion of 
their reading-lessons on their slates. Several benefits 
arise from this practice : the form of the word and the 
letters of which it is composed are impressed on the 
mind of the pupil; he receives muscular training of 
the hand ; he learns to some extent the use of capital 
letters and punctuation-marks ; and the exercise secures 
attention to the work. 

Should the pupil not be able to write at first, he may 
print the lessons on his slate, but he should write as 
soon as possible, and at least one paragraph should be 
copied by him from every lesson. It would be better to 
copy the lessons in the First and the Second Reader in 
full. 

10. Mispronounced Words. — All words mispronounced 
during the lesson should be written on the blackboard, 
where they may be seen by the class. These should be 
copied by the pupils on their slates, and the proper pro- 
nunciation of them be learned for the next recitation. 
The teacher should also place before the pupils a list of 
words most frequently mispronounced, and the pupils 



READING. 89 

should have frequent drills on the proper pronuncia- 
tion of these words. 

11. Incorporating Words. — It is an excellent practice 
to have pupils substitute words in sentences. This 
gives them a knowledge of synonyms, and at the same 
time shows that they understand what they are reading. 
It is also a good plan to have them take words of the 
reading-lesson as selected by the teacher and incor- 
porate them in sentences of their own construction. 
They will thus learn the use of words much more 
readily than by the formal definition. 

12. Familiar Words. — All lessons at first should con- 
tain only familiar words, such as the pupil is likely to 
have as a part of his own vocabulary, or such, at least, 
as he knows the meaning of, though he may not have 
used them in his own speech. Primary books should be 
in child-language if designed for the use of children. 

13. Definitions. — Pupils should be permitted to define 
words in their own terms. As heretofore suggested, they 
may sometimes do this by substituting another word. The 
teacher should define no word for the pupil if the latter 
is able to define it for himself, and if the child is not able 
to give a definition, its substitution of a word of nearly 
the same meaning is better than a formal definition com- 
mitted but not understood. 

14. A Combination of Methods. — In teaching beginners 
a combination of methods is desirable. The Object 
Method, the Word Method, the Alphabetic Method, the 
Group Method, — all or a combination of all should be 
used. After learning a number of words by the Object 
Method, the methods practically combine and intermin- 
gle, and the difference_is so slight and of so little im- 



90 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

portance that no sensible teacher will make a hobby of 
any one of them. 

15. The Chart. — A chart in connection with the First 
Reader and the blackboard will be very convenient. 
Both chart and blackboard are useful. If no chart is 
at hand, the teacher may write or print both the words 
and the letters on the blackboard, and have the pupils 
copy from his work. 

16. Short Lessons. — Lessons for beginners should be 
very short. It is better that the pupils should remember 
a very few words, and be able to call them, at sight and 
read them in sentences, than stumble over the words of 
a lesson twice as great in length. 

17. Single Words. — As an occasional exercise for the 
purpose of cultivating attention and training the pupils 
to pronounce at sight, it is valuable to have pupils in 
class read in turn sometimes but a single word, then also 
but a single line. 

18. Reading for Pupils. — It is a good plan for the 
teacher occasionally to read the lesson through for his 
pupils before they attempt to read, particularly if the 
lesson be read to them before they begin to study it. In 
this way they are enabled to get at the sense and senti- 
ment of the selection without wasting time unnecessarily 
in trying to comprehend it. 

19. Imitative Reading. — An effective means of break- 
ing up monotonous or other faulty reading at times is for 
the teacher, if possible, to imitate the fault. It is not 
wise, however, for him to imitate the reading of any 
particular pupil, for this may wound the feelings of the 
child and do very much more harm than good. It is 
better to imitate faulty reading in general before the 



READING. 91 

recitation begins. The pupils will not thus take offense, 
and yet they will make an effort to avoid the fault which 
the teacher imitates. 

20. Encourage rather than Criticise. — The teacher 
should rarely find fault with a pupil's efforts to read. 
He should rather encourage the child, and when correc- 
tions are made they should be such as will benefit the 
reader. With many the mispronunciation of a word 
is a much greater offense than the most incorrect form 
or manner of expression. 

21. Interruptions. — Permit no interruptions while any 
one is attempting to read. The reader's attention should 
not be distracted from what he is attempting to read, by 
pupils snapping their fingers or raising the hands. Any 
criticism that may be desirable should be reserved until 
he has taken his seat. 

22. Asking Questions. — The teacher should ask ques- 
tions to lead the beginner to emphasize properly. Thus, 
in the sentence, TJiat little boy writes very rapidly, a series 
of questions like the following will lead the child to 
shift the emphasis naturally from one word to another 
in obedience to the teacher's wishes : Who writes very 
rapidly? Which boy writes very rapidly? Which 
little boy writes very rapidly? What does the little 
boy do very rapidly ? How does that little boy write ? 
How rapidly does that little boy w r rite ? A similar series 
of questions may be used with other sentences, and pupils 
be thus led out of the monotonous style of reading. 

23. Interesting Pupils. — One of the most effective ways 
of breaking up monotone in reading is by creating inter- 
est in the piece to be read. This may be done partly by 
asking questions, partly by holding a conversation with 



92 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

the class on the subject of the lesson, and partly by judi- 
ciously selecting such exercises to be read as are strictly 
within the mental grasp of the child. 

24. Reading to One Another. — It is an excellent plan to 
have all the pupils, except the one who is reading, close 
their books and then give close attention while he reads. 
After he has finished, some one should be called upon to 
reproduce from memory what the other pupil read from 
the book. This plan is particularly valuable as an oc- 
casional exercise in giving culture to both attention and 
memory. 

25. Occasional Dialogues.— These are valuable aids in 
training the attention of pupils and securing natural ex- 
pression. Care must be taken, however, that the language 
and the sentiment are adapted to the pupil's capacity. The 
old plan of reading selections from the dramas of Sheri- 
dan Knowdes and Shakespeare was simply ridiculous. 

26. Silent Reading. — Give plenty of exercise in silent 
reading. Indeed, it would do no harm to permit each pu- 
pil to look over his paragraph a short time before calling 
on him to read aloud. This may not be necessary, how- 
ever, where he has had ample time to prepare his lesson. 
Nearly all of our reading after leaving school is of this 
character, and it is therefore specially important that 
every one should be trained to glean the thought from 
the printed page. 

27. Too Critical. — The teacher should not encourage 
slovenly habits in reading by permitting serious errors 
to pass unnoticed ; but, on the other hand, he should not 
be too critical. The omission of an occasional word not 
absolutely necessary to the sense is not so serious a matter 
that the teacher need wound the feelings of the pupil by 



READING. 93 

calling his attention to it openly. What the child needs 
is encouragement, and not censure, to make it do well. 

28. Attention to Errors. — Both constant and patient at- 
tention must be given by the teacher to the correction of 
defective articulation and pronunciation. Children will 
pronounce as they hear others pronounce at home and 
elsewhere, however incorrect this may be, and all, in 
their haste, are liable to articulate more or less indis- 
tinctly, clip syllables, or run sounds together. Much 
care is necessary to correct these faults. 

29. Diacritical Marks. — At a comparatively early age 
the child may be taught at least the dictionary-marks 
for the long and the short vow r el-sounds. After these 
are known the teacher should explain by the use of the 
blackboard and teach each of the other marks, being care- 
ful not to hurry his pupils too much. Pupils should thus 
be taught how to use the dictionary, and be encouraged 
to consult it whenever in doubt as to the pronunciation 
of a word. 

30. Drill on the Elementary Sounds. — Pupils learn at 
a very early age the elementary sounds of the language. 
The teacher should give frequent drills on these sounds, 
both singly and in connection with words. It is prob- 
ably best to give a drill on the words first, and then have 
pupils articulate the sounds irrespective of the words. 

These drills may be made useful also in giving train- 
ing in pitch, by having pupils first give the pitch in such 
a tone as the teacher may request, then in a higher or a 
lower tone, changing from one pitch to another. The 
drills may be made useful also in teaching force, move- 
ment, etc. 

A drill on the elementary sounds should usually be 



94 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

in concert. It will have a tendency to encourage the 
timid, and at the same time train all to act and speak in 
harmony. The chief benefits of the drills are that they 
give flexibility to the voice and train the pupils to dis- 
tinct and correct articulation. 

31. Division of Lessons. — Do not make the mistake of 
supposing that because a lesson covers a certain number 
of paragraphs or pages you must assign all of it for a 
single lesson. Use your judgment. Assign such quan- 
tity as pupils can prepare thoroughly. A few lines or a 
single paragraph well prepared and w T ell read is more 
beneficial than as many pages taught imperfectly or 
glanced over hastily. Every teacher must determine 
for himself how much his pupils can do well and 
profitably. 

32. Too Much Drill. — Nothing tends to discourage 
pupils more than a constant drill on the same lesson. 
Give your pupils variety. Rather let them read a lesson 
but moderately well, and give them some supplementary 
reading, than keep them drilling on a lesson until they 
tire of it. Many teachers in their anxiety to secure 
thoroughness fall into this error, and nauseate their 
pupils with constant and senseless repetition. The 
child, like the man, delights in acquiring new ideas, 
in fighting new battles, and in testing its strength in 
overcoming new difficulties. 

33. Right Habits in Reading. — The most valuable 
teaching of reading is that which secures correct habits. 
The children must in the reading-class be required to 
speak and read correctly, but it is equally important that 
they speak or read correctly in all other classes, even in 
the giving of a definition in geography, the spelling of a 



READING. 95 

word, or the repetition of the multiplication table. Right 
habits of this kind formed will make children good read- 
ers permanently. 

34. The Eye should Anticipate the Voice. — Those whose 
reading has the best effect on an audience are thev who 
are able to look the hearers in the eye at least a part of 
the time. To be able to do this, the reader must be 
.trained to look ahead, taking in not only a few advance 
words, but sometimes a whole sentence at a glance. Only 
long and patient training will enable a reader to become 
thus proficient, and the training cannot begin too early. 

35. Reading Aloud at Home. — As a step toward secur- 
ing intelligible reading, and as a help in creating a taste 
for fireside reading;, children should be encouraged to 
read aloud at home frequently, even though their read- 
ing be but imperfect. It will do them great good, and 
be an incentive to improvement. 

36. Concert Reading. — Concert reading should be in- 
dulged in cautiously and only to a limited extent. It 
is claimed for concert reading that it is beneficial — 

1. In bringing out the voices of the timid; 

2. In checking the speed of those who read too rap- 
idly ; 

3. In quickening the speed of those who read too 
slowly ; 

4. In waking up the class ; 

5. As an exercise in articulation and pronunciation. 
There are, however, serious objections to frequent 

concert reading, one of the most important of which is 
that the weak learn to depend upon the strong, and in 
the exercise they merely pronounce the words, feeling 
that in the confusion of tones they will not be detected. 



96 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

Concert reading is likely also to destroy natural expres- 
sion. 

If concert reading be indulged in, it will be profitable 
to have the class read in sections. The class mav be 
divided into two sections, one of which shall read 
against the other, thus holding out to each section an 
incentive to do well and excel the other. The class 
may also be divided into a larger number of sections, 
each of which may read in turn, the teacher acting as 
judge to decide upon the merits of the reading of the 
respective sections. 

37. Reproduction on Slate. — An exercise of great value 
is that of the teacher's selecting some interesting story or 
description and having the pupils listen to him while he 
reads it to them, they to reproduce it afterward on their 
slates or on paper. The exercise gives valuable culture 
to the power of attention, and the subsequent writing of 
it is an excellent language-lesson. 

38. Holding the Attention. — If the class seem inclined 
to be inattentive, an exercise somewhat as follows maybe 
given : Begin with a pupil, and let him read until the 
name of some other pupil is called. Suddenly call upon 
another, who takes up the sentence or the paragraph pre- 
cisely where it was dropped by his predecessor and pro- 
ceeds to read until he in turn is interrupted by the teacher's 
calling upon another. Should any of those called upon be 
not ready to proceed, the teacher should lose no time, but 
call at once upon some one else, and thus keep close 
attention and constant interest. 

39. Reading Paragraphs. — In reading paragraphs the 
exercise may be varied by having several pupils in suc- 
cession read the same paragraph, each giving expression 



READING. 97 

to the sentiment of the paragraph according to his own 
mental apprehension of it, and then again having each 
of the pupils read a different paragraph. This will give 
variety to the reading-exercise and add to the interest of 
the recitation. 

40. Inaccuracies to be Corrected. — The teacher should 
give careful attention to the pupil's speech at all times, 
and by an occasional hint or suggestion set him aright 
where his pronunciation is incorrect or his articulation 
faulty. It is not enough to correct the words as mispro- 
nounced in the reading-class. Many more words are likely 
to be mispronounced in conversation or in the recitations 
in other branches. It would not be wise, of course, for 
the teacher to break into a conversation in order to make 
a correction. There are manv other times and occasions 
when he may reach the error and correct it without ne- 
cessarily wounding the child's feelings. Thus, a list of mis- 
pronounced words heard during the day may be placed on 
the blackboard, and the attention of the whole class be 
directed to them for a few moments, and the necessary 
corrections be made. 

41. Local Errors. — There are probably few communities 
where some provincialisms do not mar the elegance and 
beauty of oral speech. It may be the sound of w for v, 
or ch (orj, ovj for ch; or the dropping of the r in horse y 
or the addition of r in idea, or the dropping of h in heat, 
or the adding of the h to such words as in or on, or the 
pronunciation of to as if spelled tow, or the pronunciation 
of such words as calf with the short sound of a, or other 
equally flagrant errors. 

What shall the teacher do? In general, he should try 
to make his own speech conform to the best standards, 

7 



98 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

and as far as possible train his pupils to imitate him; 
and yet he should not be over-nice in his distinctness of 
articulation or over-rigid in insisting upon the pupils' giv- 
ing the exact vowel-sounds where custom differs so widely 
among educated and cultured scholars as it does on the 
sound of a as found in the words ash, glass, and sim- 
ilar words. 

42. Defining Phrases. — It frequently occurs that defini- 
tions to single words will give the learner no adequate idea 
of the meaning of the sentence. Indeed, where figurative 
language is extensively used the children should be ques- 
tioned on the expressions as wholes rather than on the 
individual words. Thus, in the Persian fable, where a 
rat living near a bin of wheat gnaws through, and the 
poet thus expresses the result, 

" When on him rained a golden shower, 
And he became a rat of power," 

the questions should not be, What is the meaning of 
rained? Of golden? Of shoiver? for this will not ex- 
press the meaning, but, What does the poet mean by 
saying, " On him rained a golden shower " ? This plan 
of questioning will cultivate thought, and pupils will 
learn to appreciate the beauties of figurative language 
as well as the directness of plain statement. 

43. Phonic Drills. — When pupils have once learned 
the table of elementary sounds, it will be found a val- 
uable exercise to give them an occasional drill on the 
various combinations of sounds, particularly the conso- 
nant combinations, both in connection with words and 
separately. This will. tend to make the vocal organs 
flexible and place them under complete control of the 



READING. 99 

speaker. With the younger pupils it is better to give 
the first drills in connection with words, both for the 
reason that they are easier to give in this way, and be- 
cause the lesson may be made more interesting. 

44. Open the Mouth. — Pupils should be trained to open 
the mouth when reading. By this it is not meant that 
the lips should be placed wide apart, but rather that the 
jaws should be separated, so as to let the sound flow 
freely and without interruption by the teeth. This 
result may be secured by frequent and continued drills 
on words containing the sounds of a as in arm and 
all. 

45. Over-distinct Articulation. — Do not let your pupils 
form the habit of giving an over-nice and over-distinct 
pronunciation, as gos'peV, 'pu'pil', etc., throwing almost 
as much force on the second syllable as on the first. So 
also we should avoid the opposite extremes of pronoun- 
cing " the book," the booh and thu book; rather subdue the 
e-sound and call it th? booh; thus also a-man f , a-cart f , 
throwing the force on the important word. 

46. Substituting Synonyms.— The substitution of syn- 
onyms is a most valuable exercise, not only in giving 
the child a vocabulary, but also in training him to dis- 
tinguish the sense of what he reads. It consists in hav- 
ing the pupil substitute a word of similar signification 
for some word in a sentence selected by the teacher, in 
such a way that the sense of the sentence may not be 
destroyed. Pupils will take great interest in the exer- 
cise, and it will prove valuable in developing thought. 

47. The Teacher must be Interested. — This is one of 
the chief essentials to success, not only in teaching; read- 
ing, but also in teaching all other branches. The teacher 



100 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

who feels an interest in bis primary classes, and who will 
teach correct reading from the beginning on, will always 
succeed in making good natural readers, which are inva- 
riably the best. 

48. Preparation of the Lesson. — It is not only neces- 
sary that the pupil give the lesson previous study; this 
study must be intelligent study, and in order to make it 
such the teacher has certain work to do. He should pre- 
pare every lesson carefully before assigning it, that he 
may know definitely just what work, and how much, he 
is asking his pupils to perform. 

It is a good plan for him to read the lesson aloud, or 
at least some of the most difficult parts of it, when he 
assigns it, calling the attention of the pupils to the new 
or difficult words, explaining literary allusions, referring 
the pupils to certain biographical or historical works to 
enable them to explain such reference as is made to cha- 
racters in biography or history, and see that they get the 
general thought of the author and the aim of the piece. 
All this will prepare them to study the selection intelli- 
gently and with interest. 

When the class is called for recitation the teacher 
should satisfy himself that all have studied the lesson, 
and to do this he may pursue a plan somewhat as fol- 
lows: 

1. Question some as to the subject-matter of the les- 
son and the aim of the piece to be read. 

2. Question others as to what places, persons, or ob- 
jects are named in the piece. 

3. Question also as to the leading thoughts or inci- 
dents mentioned in the piece, the pupils of course being 
permitted to express themselves in their own language. 



READING. 101 

4. Question as to the pronunciation and meaning of 
any new or unfamiliar words found in the selection. 

5. Question on such biographical or historical allu- 
sions as were referred to during the preceding lesson- 
period. 

This plan is simply suggestive, of course, and the 
teacher should not attempt to follow it every day, for 
it will consume much time if both teacher and pupils 
become interested in the lesson. 

III. The Vocal Element in Reading. 

It is not the purpose of this book to discuss in full 
the methods of the elocutionist; his work is that of a 
specialist. The intention of the author is to give 
simply a few general directions for the teaching of the 
chief vocal elements, Quality, Emphasis, Force, Pitch, In- 
flection, and Rate, believing that these are the essentials, 
and that a fuller discussion, while it might interest the 
few, would simply tend to confuse the many. 

Quality. 

Quality of voice has reference to the kind of tone 
used in speaking and reading. Different sentiments 
may be expressed by different tones. Indeed, the tone 
sometimes conveys the sentiment much more readily 
than do the words. Thus, a pleasant voice, rich in 
tone, w 7 ill often control an audience more effectively 
and make time pass more pleasantly, though the sen- 
timents uttered be of but ordinary interest, than greater 
wisdom conveyed through the means of a voice harsh 
and untrained. 

The three chief tones in which nearly all sentiments 
are expressed are named as follows : Pure, Orotund, and 



102 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

• 

Aspirated. To these may be added a number of others, 
as the Whispered, consisting of breath only ; the Gut- 
tural, which is a deep throat-tone ; the Tremor, which 
is a tremulous movement of the voice ; and still others ; 
but for general reading the first three named are suf- 
ficient. 

Pure Tone is smooth and clear. It is used in ordinary 
conversation, and is the expression of that which is joyous, 
lights or agreeable. It is used also to express sadness. 

The Orotund is the same as Pure Tone, but magnified 
and intensified. It is used in expressing that which is 
descriptive of grandeur, sublimity, awe, solemnity, or 
reverence. 

The Aspirated Tone is tone combined with breath 
forcibly expelled. It may be called a half whisper. 
Aspirated Tone is used to express secrecy, fear, wonder, 
terror, or horror. 

In teaching* reading: the character of the sentiment to 
be expressed must determine the tone or quality of voice 
in which the piece is to be read. Pupils must be trained 
to adapt the tone to the sentiment. They should be exer- 
cised on the various qualities of voice, the teacher select- 
ing at first such pieces as require only pure conversational 
tones, and requesting the pupils to express them naturally, 
as they would in ordinary conversation. Similar exer- 
cises should be given to develop the other qualities of 
voice named, and the pupils be trained at length to read 
well in any tone required. 

A valuable exercise is that of having them examine 
various selections from time to time, and tell in what 
tone each should be read, thus adapting the tone to the 
character of the selection. 



READING. 103 

Emphasis. 

Emphasis is a stress of voice placed on one or more 
words of a sentence. 

The important words of a sentence, together with those 
which introduce new ideas, are those which usually receive 
the emphasis. Emphasis serves to point out the meaning 
of a speaker, and puts his audience in sympathy with his 
thoughts. 

The chief kinds of emphasis are absolute, antithetic, and 
cumulative. 

Absolute Emphasis is that which is applied to the 
prominent ideas to be expressed, without reference to 
other ideas. 

Antithetic Emphasis is that which is used in expressing 
contrasted ideas, as in the following : 

He liveth long who liveth well. 

A cottage flower gives honey to the bee — a king's garden 
none to the butterflv. 

Cumulative Emjjhasis is that which is applied to a 
succession of emphatic words in which the last receives 
more emphasis than its predecessor, as in the expres- 
sions — 

To arms ! to aems ! ye brave. 

Boat ahoy ! boat ahoy ! ! 

Usually, the words which modify the subject or the 
predicate of a sentence are emphasized. Thus, in the 
sentence, "The meanest man is not without friends," 
the word meanest, which modifies the subject man, re- 
ceives more emphasis than the word which it modifies. 
So also in the sentence, "The horse ran rapidly across 
the pasture," the word rapidly and the phrase across the 



104 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

pasture) both of which modify the predicate ran, receive 
more emphasis than the predicate itself. 

When the modifiers are themselves modified, their mod- 
ifiers are usually emphasized. Thus, in the sentence, " The 
little boy learns very rapidly/' the word rapidly is empha- 
sized as a modifier of the predicate, but the word very, 
which modifies the modifier rapidly, and intensifies it, 
receives still more emphasis. 

The exceptions to the foregoing principle are found 
when special ideas are to be expressed, as where we would 
desire to place the word rapidly in contrast with the word 
slowly, and thus emphasize by the rule of Antithetic Em- 
phasis. 

An excellent exercise in the teaching of emphasis is that 
of having pupils point out the emphatic words in such 
sentences as they understand fully. Sentence-building 
also gives them excellent training. Thus, let the teacher 
name a short sentence, as " The dog eats," and then let 
the pupils build to the subject as follows: The black dog 
eats ; The little dog eats ; The spotted dog eats, etc. The 
pupils will naturally emphasize the adjective modifiers. 
Now change the exercise, and let them build to the pred- 
icate ; thus, The dog eats meat ; The dog eats bread ; The 
dog eats greedily; The dog eats in the kitchen, etc., and 
they will emphasize the modifiers of the predicate. 

In Antithetic Emphasis give a number of sentences, and 
let the pupils first select the words in antithesis, and then 
read, giving these antithetic words the emphasis. 

Force. 

Force is the volume or degree of loudness used in 
reading a selection. By- some it is claimed that empha- 



READING. 105 

sis is but a special kind of force ; but if this were true, 
accent would necessarily be a special kind of emphasis 
or also a special kind of force. Force has reference 
to the general degree of loudness used in the reading 
of a piece. 

The three chief degrees of force used in reading are 
known as moderate, loud, and gentle. 

Whatever may be the character of the piece to be read, 
the force should be of sufficient loudness to make the 
reader clearly understood by all his audience. 

Moderate Force is that used in ordinary conversation 
and in the reading of such narrative, descriptive, and 
other pieces as are not specially animated. 

Loud Force is used in reading selections of a declam- 
atory character; also those expressing sentiments of a 
joyous or animated nature. 

Gentle Force is that which is used to express senti- 
ments of a gentle, tender, subdued, or solemn nature. 

In teaching force nothing is more valuable than 
having pupils put in practice the principle heretofore 
suggested — that whatever the character of the piece, 
the first point of importance is to read so loud that 
the reader may be clearly understood by his audience. 

The first exercises in teaching force should be on nar- 
rative or descriptive pieces, such as require a moderate 
degree of force, and in which the pupil finds himself 
telling of some scene or event in the language of an- 
other and in a natural tone of voice. As a variation 
of this plan the pupil may have an exercise in articu- 
lating the elementary sounds, particularly the vocal 
sounds, then in repeating a few sentences. 

Similar exercises may be conducted to give practice in 



106 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

Loud Force and in Gentle Force. A valuable exercise 

consists in repeating the elementary sounds first with 

Moderate Force, then with Loud Force, and again 

with Gentle Force. 

After these exercises a number of sentences should be 

assigned by dictation, which the pupil should examine, 

and at the following recitation he should be able not 

only to tell the degree of force with which they should 

be read, but also be able to read them. Lessons should 

also be analyzed, and the pupil be trained to judge and 

name the force w^ith which each sentence should be 

read. 

Pitch. 

Pitch in reading denotes the general tone of voice in 
which the sentence, paragraph, or selection is read. 

When the voice rises or falls from the general or pre- 
vailing pitch, it does so by inflections. 

The Keynote is the standard pitch or tone which cha- 
racterizes the reading of any selection. It is sometimes 
called also the Standard Pitch. . 

The three most important grades of pitch are termed 
Middle Pitch, High Pitch, and Low Pitch. These are, 
however, merely relative grades: that is, there is no 
definite note of the musical scale fixed for any one of 
these degrees. Different voices differ naturally in pitch; 
thus, what is Middle Pitch in one is possibly High Pitch 
or Low Pitch in another. 

In general, the pitch of men's voices is an octave 
low r er than that of women's voices, but there is also a 
very great difference in the voices of either sex. Thus 
women's voices are usually classed as soprano (high 
pitch), alto (low pitch), and contralto (medium pitch) 



READING. 107 

Men's voices are classed as tenor (high pitch), bass (low 
pitch), and baritone (medium pitch). 

Middle Pitch is that employed in common conversation 
or in reading that which is unemotional. 

High Pitch is that which rises above the ordinary- 
speaking tone; it is used to express that which is joy- 
ous or elevated, also sentiments which are subdued, sor- 
rowful, or pathetic. It is used also when fear, hate, or 
anger is represented. 

Low Pitch is that which falls below the ordinary 
speaking tone ; it is used to express sentiments which 
are grave or solemn. 

One of the first exercises in teaching pitch is to drill 
pupils on the musical scale until all can give it ac- 
curately. 

The pupils may be required to repeat together the 
elementary vowel-sounds on a pitch indicated by the 
teacher, and then either ascend or descend from one 
degree of pitch to another as the teacher may indicate, 
in such a manner as to give variety of pitch and impart 
readiness and ability to strike the required pitch prompt- 
ly and accurately. Short sentences may be used for the 
same purpose as the elementary sounds in an exercise of 
this kind. 

The definitions of the various degrees of pitch will 
enable either teacher or pupil, if the latter be an intel- 
ligent reader, to adapt the pitch to the sentiment of the 
piece to be read. 

The chief errors to be corrected in connection with the 
teaching of pitch are the following : 

1. Pupils and speakers before an audience are apt to 
pitch the voice in too high a key, under the impression 



108 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

that the higher the key the more distinctly they will be 
heard. The same difficulty occurs where pupils recite or 
declaim. The error is best corrected by having the pupil 
recite to a single individual or two, that he may acquire 
a natural mode of expression and speak in natural tones. 
It is best, therefore, that such pieces as are adapted to 
Middle Pitch be selected first. 

2. Pupils do not always distinguish between pitch and 
force. Pitch, it must be remembered, has nothing to do 
w T ith the loudness or softness of one's reading, but is 
entirely dependent on the relative tone of the musical 
scale. Should pupils fail to make the proper dis- 
tinction, the teacher should illustrate, and join with 
them in their reading until they fully understand the 
difference. 

Pupils sometimes fail to adapt the pitch to the senti- 
ment. Much of public reading, particularly from the 
pulpit, is open to criticism in this respect — that there 
is but little variation in the pitch of voice so as to make 
it harmonize with the sentiment to be read. 

Inflections. 

Inflections are slides of the voice either upward or 
downward. Reading without inflections produces mono- 
tone, which is never heard in natural conversation. We 
naturally begin in one tone, and end a word in either a 
higher or a lower key. We hardly speak even two suc- 
cessive syllables in the same key. What we do thus nat- 
urally in conversation we should do also in our reading:, 
in order to make it pleasant and musical. 

The upward slide of the voice is known as the Rising 
Inflection, and the downward slide as the Falling Inflec- 



READING. 109 

tion ; all other inflections are but combinations of the 
rising and the falling. 

The Rising Inflection is usually indicated by the fol- 
lowing character ( ' ), called the acute accent, and the falling 
by the following ( * ), called the grave accent. 

In order that the pupil may give proper inflection, he 
must first study thoroughly and faithfully the selection 
to be read, until he fully understands the meaning of 
every part of it. When once he fully understands the 
selection, if he has been trained to read naturally, so 
as to convey the meaning to others, he will need no 
rules to direct him. The inflections, like the emphasis, 
will usually be correct. 

Exercises may be given on inflection by using some 
of the vocal elements in connection with the diatonic or 
musical scale. Thus, pupils may give the long sound of 
a or any other of the vowel-sounds on the keynote, and 
then slide to the next tone above or below, called the 
second; or the voice may be trained to slide two tones, 
or three, or even a full octave. This will give flexibility 
to the voice, but the matter of adapting the slide to the 
various sentiments is the special work of the elocutionist, 
and probably beyond the limited knowledge of the child- 
reader. 

Rate. 

Rate is the degree of rapidity with which the voice 
moves in reading. 

Rate may be either moderate, rapid, or slow. 

Moderate Rate is that used in ordinary narration or 
description. 

Rapid Rate is used to express sentiments of joy, gayety, 
mirth, anger, or fear. 



110 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

Slow Bate is used to express that which is noble, digni- 
fied, or grand; also, that which is solemn, subdued, pathetic, 
or grave. 

The character of the piece to be read will determine 
what rate should be used. In general, how T ever, the 
rate should never be so slow as to be sluggish, nor 
should it be so rapid as to make the reading indistinct; 
both are serious errors. Both faults may to some extent 
be corrected by exercises in concert reading, though this 
exercise, as has been suggested, should be indulged in 
cautiously and to a very limited extent. 

The student should exercise great care that the words 
do not follow one another in too rapid succession. Let 
each word be fully uttered before articulating any part 
of its successor, otherwise there will be a clipping of 
syllables which will greatly mar the beauty of reading. 

Care must be taken in rapid reading that the voice do 
not rise above the natural pitch. The pupil should be 
trained to read a sentence first slowly, then increase the 
rate gradually until he can read it with no greater rapid- 
ity without becoming indistinct in his utterance. The 
teacher must be careful never to force a pupil in read- 
ing beyond the limit of distinctness in articulation. 

The usual error of pupils is that of reading all pieces 
with nearly the same rate. Some are naturally more 
rapid in speech than others, as their temperament may 
be more nervous, and therefore they will read more rap- 
idly. These, as well as they who read too slowly because 
of natural temperament, need the example and the encour- 
agement of the teacher to train them to a proper rate of 
utterance. 

Pupils whose rate is too rapid should be led to dwell 



READING. Ill 

longer on the vowel-sounds, while those whose rate is 
too slow should be trained to speak their words more 
quickly by dwelling a shorter time on the vowel-sounds. 
They may also be required to read selections of an ani- 
mated nature. 

Pauses. 

Pauses are intervals or cessations of the voice between 
words, sentences, etc. 

The two chief kinds of pauses are known as Gram- 
medical Pauses and Rhetorical Pauses. 

Grammatical Pauses are those which indicate the 
grammatical divisions of discourse. They are indi- 
cated usually by marks of punctuation. 

Rhetorical Pauses are those which are used for the 
purpose of indicating the sentiment of a discourse. 
They are determined wholly by the sense to be ex- 
pressed and by the good judgment of the reader. 
These pauses are necessary to the reader to enable 
him to express himself forcibly and gracefully, and 
to enable him to rest his voice and to breathe, so that 
his utterance may be easy and natural. 

They are necessary to the hearer in order that he may 
have time to grasp each thought expressed, fully com- 
prehend it, and see its relation to that which has gone 
before. They also rest the mind of the listener, and 
enable him to receive a deeper impression of the senti- 
ment expressed. 

Teachers should be careful that pupils do not acquire 
the notion that marks of punctuation indicate rhetorical 
pauses. A semicolon may sometimes require a greater 
cessation of voice than a period. Indeed, sometimes 
the very absence of a punctuation-mark may indicate a 



112 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

greater pause of voice than the presence of one of these 
grammatical characters. 

Train pupils to understand that the sentiment to be 
expressed determines the length of pause to be used, 
and that in general the greater the emphasis and the 
more important and impressive the sentiment, the longer 
should be the pause. The comparative length of pauses 
agrees with the rate employed, and therefore what might 
be considered a long pause in Rapid Rate would be but 
a short pause in Slow Rate. 

A proper use of pauses may be taught by having pupils 
read naturally, as suggested in connection with Primary 
Reading; also, by having them first divide the sentences 
to be read into phrases, and read these naturally. 

General Suggestions on Teaching Reading. 

1. Previous Study. — The pupil should not be asked to 
read a selection which is beyond his capacity to appreci- 
ate and understand fully. The difficulty of the piece 
should be adapted to the ability of the child, and then 
lie should be required to give it careful study, that he 
may be able to read it impressively. 

2. Create a Taste for Reading. — A taste for good reading 
will last through life. How much good might be accom- 
plished if we could create a desire on the part of our 
pupils to read good books for the sake of the infor- 
mation they contain or the pleasure they may give ! 
It would rob the school-methods of teaching reading; 
of half the difficulties with which thev are attended, 
and produce most excellent results. 

3. A Period for Reading.— Much might be done in the 
way of creating a taste for reading by setting apart a spe- 



READING. ♦IIS 

cial time each day for the pupils to enjoy themselves in 
the reading of such books or papers as are likely to in- 
terest them or convey information. The plan might be 
varied by the teacher's reading to them occasionally a 
short story or an interesting description. 

4. Newspapers in Class. — But few if any series of 
Readers furnish all the exercise a child should have. 
Anything, therefore, will prove valuable which will cre- 
ate in the child a taste and desire to read for the sake of 
reading. In this direction children's magazines, story- 
books written in such language as the child understands, 
but not necessarily in monosyllables, or children's news- 
papers, will prove specially valuable. Care must be taken, 
however, that the newspapers be such as are not given to 
dealing in slander and slang. These are liable to do more 
mischief than good. 

As a special feature, the children may be permitted 
to bring newspapers into class, and each read his own 
selections in such a way as to interest the other members 
of the class. If he can do this, he will be able to show 
that he is on the right road, and the difficulties of learning 
to read will vanish one by one. 

5. Original Selections.— The teacher will find it a good 
plan in all grades of classes to allow his pupils occasion- 
ally to make their own selections to be read in class. Jle 
should have these submitted to him, however, before the 
pupil is permitted to read publicly, for now and then such 
selections will be chosen by thoughtless pupils as would 
be inappropriate or such as are beyond the ability of the 
child to read properly. 

6. Scrap Lessons.— Much interest may be created bv 
the teacher's selecting some suitable story or description 



114* METHODS OF TEACHING. 

from a newspaper and cutting it into short paragraphs, 
and pasting these on bits of cardboard. These may then 
be numbered and handed to the pupils promiscuously, who 
read in turn as the respective numbers on the cards are 
called. In order to insure close attention let the whole 
class be required to reproduce the selection at a subsequent 
recitation, each in his own language. It affords excellent 
practice in reading, while it also secures attention and 
gives a valuable lesson in language and composition. 

7. Reading-Matches. — These, like all other contests, if 
judiciously conducted, serve to create considerable inter- 
est, but there is great danger of their being of too frequent 
occurrence. Care must be exercised by the teacher that 
no ill feelings arise between the contestants. In these 
matches each pupil may read until he is called to his 
seat by some member of the opposite section for a mis- 
take made, should that occur before he finishes his assigned 
portion of the lesson. 

8. Description and Narration. — The earliest lessons in 
reading should be mainly narration and description. 
Pupils like to read stories first, and therefore narratives 
are most likely to interest them ; next to these are vivid 
descriptions such as they can understand. Children should 
not be promoted too rapidly from Reader to Reader, but 
rather be given such supplementary reading as is to be 
found in the best children's magazines and papers. 

9. Analysis of the Lesson. — As has been intimated, 
the teacher should read the lesson to his pupils a day 
in advance, in order that they may know how to study 
it. He should do more than this : he should read it 
with his pupils, calling attention to the difficult or un- 
usual words, explaining the historical, biographical, and 



READING. 115 

scientific allusions in the lesson, and thus train his pupils 
to study the lesson understanding^ and at the same time 
critically. 

10. Reading from the Platform. — The teacher should 
now and then call individual pupils to read from the 
platform. In such cases those who remain at their 
seats may close their books for the time, and then 
make criticisms not only on the manner of reading, 
but also on the position, the tone, etc. The exercise 
will train every pupil in time to have confidence in 
himself and in his ability to stand up before an au- 
dience and express himself. The speakers who on the 
first trial can stand before an audience and express them- 
selves in fluent and forcible speech, without clinging to 
a table or even to the buttons on their coats, are few 
indeed. Reading from the platform will help to over- 
come this stage-fear, at least to some extent, and give 
pupils confidence enough in themselves to permit them 
at least to read, if not speak, before an audience. 

11. Committing to Memory. — When selections are mem- 
orized they should be short, and only such as contain 
valuable sentiments clothed in the best language. Com- 
mitting to memory senseless rhymes which will not be 
forgotten when we want to rid ourselves of them is not 
only useless, but also mischievous. 

12. Breathing Exercises. — These are important as an 
aid in securing correct posture and a free use of the 
vocal organs. They must, however, be indulged in 
cautiously, for when improperly conducted they are very 
exhausting, and they are liable to weary and tire un- 
necessarily. 

In reading, pupils should be trained to take breath 



116 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

before they feel the necessity for it and before the lungs 
experience any fatigue. The lungs should not only be 
well filled with air before the pupil begins to read, but 
should also be kept well filled, that unnecessary fatigue 
may be avoided. 

An occasional exercise by the whole class or by the 
whole school in deep, full breathing will be found bene- 
ficial. The breath should be taken in slowly and ex- 
pelled slowly through the nostrils in the gentler exer- 
cises, the windows being kept open for the time being, 
that the air may be fresh and pure. 

13. Vocal Expression. — In teaching vocal expression 
the teacher should not rest satisfied with having his 
pupils imitate him. He ought to train them to exam- 
ine the selection to be read, and decide upon the ex- 
pression to be used with reference to force, rate, pitch, 
and the other vocal elements. 

Errors to be Avoided. 

There are certain errors to be avoided in teaching 
reading, most of which concern both primary and 
advanced reading. The teacher should exercise great 
vigilance, that these errors may be corrected when the 
child first learns to read. Among the chief of these 
errors are the following: 

1. Too Rapid Reading. — It is the fault of many pupils 
that they read too rapidly. This may be corrected 
partly by having the class read now and then in concert ; 
also, by leading them to dwell a longer time on the vocal 
sounds. The fault may be corrected partially by the 
teacher's reading with the pupils. 

Pupils should be made to adapt the rate to the senti- 



READING. 117 

ment of the piece to be read. It is an effective but a 
severe plan to stop a pupil in the midst of his reading, 
and have him start afresh until his rate is not too rapid. 

2. Too Slow Reading. — A very few pupils fall into the 
habit of reading too slowly. It is a difficulty hard to 
overcome. It is often a lazy habit, and as such it is con- 
stitutional. The only cure for it seems to be that of 
having the pupil read for a time only such selections as 
are lively and interesting, with now and then a concert 
exercise in connection with the more lively pupils. 

3. Failure to Adapt the Rate to the Sentiment. — This is 
a common error, pupils often reading the grave with the 
same animation and rapidity as the gay. It arises from 
the failure of the pupil to understand, appreciate, and 
feel the sentiment of the piece. If the child be taught 
to read understandingly, little trouble will be experi- 
enced. Practice on the various styles of composition 
will in time correct the error. 

4. Monotonous Reading. — This fault arises mainly from 
the fact that the child makes no distinction between pro- 
nunciation and reading. The error must be corrected in 
the very beginning if the teacher hopes to avoid it in 
the future, and no labor ought to be considered too great 
to start the pupils aright. 

5. Reading Too Loud. — This is an error of which boys 
are guilty much more frequently than girls. One of the 
best methods of correcting the error is for the teacher to 
take some simple piece which ought to be read in an 
easy, conversational tone, and then proceed to show, be- 
fore the class begins the recitation, how ridiculous the 
reading may be made by uttering it with much greater 
force than is required by the sentiment of the piece. 



118 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

The pupils will catch the hint, and there are few" who 
will not make efforts to avoid such incorrect reading. 

6. Reading Too Low.— This error is usually committed 
by girls, though it is a fault which sometimes character- 
izes the reading of bashful boys also. The fault may be 
the result of timidity or bashfulness on the part of the 
pupil, or it may be the result of a weak voice. In either 
case the correction should be made according to the na- 
ture of the cause. 

In the case of a weak voice the teacher must assign 
such exercises as will give strength to the vocal organs. 
This is, however, rarely the true cause of low reading ; 
it is usually the result of timidity, and the only cure is 
that of training the child to have more confidence. Con- 
cert exercises are useful in this direction. The teacher 
may correct the fault in time by taking a position at some 
distance from the pupil and asking the latter to read so 
that the teacher may hear. The plan of sending the 
pupil to a distance from the teacher is not a good one, 
as it attracts the attention of the class to the unfortunate 
pupil, and makes her embarrassment all the greater. 
Indeed, when the teacher proceeds to take his position at 
a distance from the child, it should be done in such wav 
as not to attract attention, and the distance should be in- 
creased so gradually that the child may not be permitted 
to suspect the object the teacher has in view. 

It has been suggested that affectation is a cause of 
low reading. This is very rarely the case. Sensible 
pupils are never affected, and few teachers have a per- 
sonal knowledge of any great number of pupils who 
read in this manner because of affectation. Should 
such, however, prove to be the cause, the plans already 



READING. 119 

suggested, together with a little judicious criticism, will 
correct the fault in good time. 

7. Drawling. — This habit is the result of either laziness 
or ignorance. In the case of its arising from laziness, it 
may be corrected by giving the pupil something to read 
in which he is interested — some little story or anecdote. 
When the fault is the result of ignorance, it will usually 
be found that the pupil has fallen into the habit uncon- 
sciously or that he does not read understandingly. It 
is probable that in many cases where a pupil drawls he 
does not prepare his lesson with any other end in view 
than that of pronouncing the words, and he holds on 
to the last pronounced until he is sure of a footing on 
the next. 

8. False Reading of Poetry. — Few can read poetry well. 
AVe need no better illustration of this than is afforded in 
the reading of hymns. Why any one in reading a hymn 
aloud should pause at the end of every line and utter the 
last line of the stanza so differently from the others, is 
something hard to answer. Indeed, it has no answer. 

The chief faults in the reading of poetry are — 

1. A monotonous drawl, w r ith the measure made ex- 
cessively and painfully distinct on every line of a stanza 
except the last, where the voice is suddenly permitted to 
slide into an unnatural cadence. 

2. Too rapid utterance, so that the effect is lost on the 
hearer. 

3. A mechanical observance of pauses without respect 
to the meaning to be expressed. 

4. A chanting tone, producing on the hearer the effect 
of a mock solemnitv. 

5. A plain articulation, which, though it brings out 



120 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

the meaning, does not show the beauty of movement 
and rhythm nor indicate the sentiment expressed by 
the language. 

Poetry should be read naturally, and yet the movement 
should be such as to produce a pleasing effect on the mind 
of the hearer, with an exactness of time and accent that 
will indicate the meter without making it prominent. 

9. Mannerisms. — It is one of the unfortunate features 
of the modern teaching of reading that pupils catch the 
mannerisms of their teachers. Instead of reading natu- 
rally, the impression seems to be that the reader or the 
so-called elocutionist must mouth and rant and dwell on 
the vocal sounds as if all of eloquence depended on the 
noise one can make. He who can make the most grimaces 
and perform the most dextrous feats of vocal gymnastics 
seems to catch the ears of the groundlings, but why he 
should be called a good reader no one seems to know. 

Many of these mannerisms are simply ridiculous. One 
would think, from the dramatic effect which so many at- 
tempt to produce, that all life is a tragedy ; but much of 
this style of reading is so comically defective as to result 
in a mere farce. Unfortunately, these mannerisms are 
all found in the hirfi art of reading, and are in nearlv 
all cases the copies of old masters, and there is but little 
hope of ever correcting them except by the merciless lash 
of criticism. 

10. Unimpassioned Reading. — An equally serious fault 
is that of reading all literature as if emotion never en- 
tered into reading at all. It is not enough that we read 
understandingly and intelligibly : we must read impres- 
sively. We must so read that the emotions of the author 
may be expressed to others, and that their minds may be 



READING. 121 

affected by the beauty of the sentiment or the depth of 
feel ins: which stirs and controls our own. 

Rules for Reading. 

Of these it may be said that they have been productive 
of little good, particularly in the primary department, 
for the simple reason that they are in general beyond 
the comprehension of the pupil. Such rules as require 
specific pauses to be made according to the punctuation- 
marks in a sentence are incorrect in general, and there- 
fore valueless. In order to apply the rule governing the 
reading of a piece — as, for instance, that we shall deter- 
mine the standard of force by the general spirit of the 
piece — it requires a knowledge of grammatical construc- 
tion, rhetorical expression, and good judgment in deter- 
mining the general effect to be produced, which the or- 
dinary child does not possess, and which many an elocu- 
tionist has longed for hopelessly. 

The Teacher of Reading should be a thorough scholar. 
No one needs a broader knowledge of the wide field of 
literature than does the teacher. He should be well 
versed in biography, geography, and history, and thus 
be able to explain all historical or mythological allusions. 
The reading-class may be made the most interesting in 
the school, for here is afforded the best possible oppor- 
tunity for literary culture. Here moral lessons may be 
given in such an effective way as is permitted in no 
other recitation. Here the pupil may be taught to 
appreciate not only beauty of expression, but also 
depth of sentiment, and the foundation be laid for sub- 
sequent culture of the most valuable and profitable kind. 



CHAPTER II. 
The Alphabet. 

Whatever method of teaching reading may be pur- 
sued, a knowledge of the alphabet must necessarily be 
acquired by the child. It is impossible for it to re- 
member any great number of word-forms. The written 
or printed characters which we call " the alphabet " are 
also the representatives of sounds, and a knowledge of 
them is necessary on this account. They are of course 
arbitrary forms, but, after all, it is much easier to teach 
these forms than it would be to teach all the words used 
by a child in its reading and in its conversation with 
its fellows. 

The alphabet is a system of characters which are used 
to represent the elementary sounds of a language. The 
word is derived from the first two letters of the Greek 
alphabet, alpha and beta, though it comes to us from 
the Latin alphabetum. 

The English alphabet consists of twenty-six letters. 
Nothing is definitely known as to the origin of these 
characters or their names. The English language received 
them from the Latin, but it is held by many that, after 
all, the characters are mere modifications of the Phoe- 
nician characters, and that the Phoenicians in turn bor- 
rowed them from the Egyptians. The characters them- 
selves have not only been considerably modified, but 
there have also been a number of additions made. 
122 



THE ALPHABET. . 123 

In learning the English alphabet it is necessary that 
the child shall be able to distinguish the various forms, 
that it shall be able to name the letters, and that it shall 
be able to associate the name with the form. Whatever 
methods will secure these results most readily are the best. 

I. Methods of Teaching the Alphabet. 

The two chief plans or methods by which children 
may be taught the alphabet are the ABC Method, 
which begins by teaching the letters themselves, and 
the. Word Method, which begins with words. The first 
proceeds from letters to words, the second from words 
to letters. Both methods have strong advocates among 
good teachers. AJ1 methods, by whatever name they 
may be known, are but modifications of these. 

1. The A B C Method. 

Formerly, this was the only method known, and it 
was a method almost without variation. Children came 
to the teacher's knee one at a time, and proceeded at the 
teacher's dictation to call the roll from A to Z; or, as 
B. F. Taylor graphically expresses it in his poem of 
The Old School-house, the boy stood with 

" Frightened hair all blown about, 

Buttered lips in half a pout, 

Knuckle boring out an eye, 

Saying l P ' and thinking ' pie ;' 

Feeling for a speckled bean, 

'Twixt each breath a dumb ravine ; 

Like clock unwound, but going yet, 

He slowly ticks the alphabet : 
' A-ah -B-ah— C-ah— D/ 

Finds the bean and calls for ' E P " 



124 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

The usual variation of this method was that of be- 
ginning at the other end of the line and calling the let- 
ters from Z to A, when the pupil retired to his seat to 
make room for some equally anxious learner. By this 
process the teacher was fortunate who succeeded in teach- 
ing the alphabet in a single winter term. Pupils learned 
the names long before they were able to associate them 
with the characters which they represented, and it was 
no uncommon sight to see the child repeating the letters 
in measured tone while it looked in an abstracted sort 
of w r ay out of the window or kept watching the expres- 
sion of the teacher's countenance. 

By the ABC Method the alphabet may be taught 
from the blackboard, with cards, from a book, or with 
blocks. 

The Blackboard Method. — In this method the teacher 
prints on the blackboard, for the first lesson, a few of 
the forms most readily remembered, such as o, s, x. etc. 
He then calls the attention of the learners to the pecu- 
liarities of these forms; and it will do no harm to have 
the children liken the forms to objects with which they 
are familiar, if this will tend to arouse interest in the 
work. 

The pupils should then be required to draw the forms 
on the board, making them as neat as possible, and where- 
ever errors are made the teacher should show the children 
how they may be corrected. After the pupils have re- 
turned to their seats they may be requested to copy the 
forms on their slates, and at the next recitation the teacher 
should review the letters previously taught and add one or 
two more. 

As soon as possible the pupils may be taught that these 



THE ALPHABET. 125 

letters combined form words. Thus, when o and x have 
been taught, let the letters be printed together to form 
ox; and when a new letter is added, as/, let the pupil 
form the new word, fox. In a very few days the ex- 
ercise will become interesting to him, and the matter of 
teaching the alphabet will be rendered very much easier. 

The process may thus be continued until the pupil 
knows the whole alphabet, leaving for the last such let- 
ters as are similar in form, and therefore whose differ- 
ences are not readily distinguished. The chief of these 
are the letters n and u, 6, d, p, and q, all of which may be 
taught more readily by this method than by any other. 

The Card Method. — This method does not differ mate- 
rially from the Blackboard Method. The letters, instead 
of being printed on the board by the teacher, are already 
found on the card if properly constructed, and the pupil 
is taught as before to recognize a few of the simplest 
forms, also their names, and then associate the names 
with the forms. 

The pupil should, as an interesting exercise, be per- 
mitted to search for such other forms on the card as he 
has already been taught. Thus, if he has been taught 
to recognize and name o, place the pointer in his hand 
and let him point to the letter, then to another o, then 
to another, and so on, until he recognizes the letter 
wherever he finds it. As a variation of the exercise, let 
several of the pupils pass to the card together, and, hav- 
ing placed a pointer in the hand of each, let them strive to 
excel one another in their efforts to find the letter named 
by the teacher. Pupils will become quite interested and 
excited in a contest of this kind, and under the care of a 
judicious teacher they will make rapid progress. 



126 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

The Block Method.— By this method the pupils become 
acquainted with the letter-forms as they find them printed 
on blocks. It is an excellent means of making pupils ac- 
quainted with the alphabet at home, where the blocks may 
be used in the children's plays. 

The blocks may also be divided into sections, and the 
pupils be permitted to exercise their ingenuity in com- 
bining these so as to form the letters correctly. This 
is particularly true of such letters as b, p, q, and d. The 
children in this way become acquainted with the forms as 
a part of their daily play, and it will be necessary to teach 
only the name of the form. 

The Book Method. — This method proceeds, as in the Card 
Method, to teach a few letters at a time, but in connection 
with a book rather than from cards. The method does 
not differ materially from the Card Method. 

The only advantage claimed for the method is that 
pupils have the book at their seats, and in this w r ay 
they may examine the letters while not reciting, and 
copy them on their slates without constantly referring 
to the blackboard. 

There is but little objection to the use of the book 
if it be taken in connection with the Card or the Black- 
board Method, but if the book alone is to be depended 
upon, this method is the least valuable of all the ABC 
methods. 

2. The Word Method. 

The ABC Method of teaching the alphabet is essen- 
tially synthetic, while the Word Method is analytic. The 
latter begins with words as wholes, and resolves these into 
the letters of which they are composed. 



THE ALPHABET. 127 

The plan of the Word Method is as follows : An ob- 
ject, as a hat, is selected, and a lesson is given, as ex- 
plained in the Object Method of teaching reading. After 
the child once recognizes the word-form, he is taught to 
pronounce the word in imitation of the teacher, then he 
names the letters of the word as the teacher pronounces 
them, and then names them without the teacher's assist- 
ance, and points to them as he names them, until finally 
he is. able to point to the individual letters as called for 
promiscuously by the teacher. 

A number of pictures which contain the principal 
letters of the alphabet may be presented, and from these 
may be taught first the names, and then the letters of 
which these names are composed. The following words, 
the names of objects, may be used in the manner indi- 
cated : cat, dog, fox, kite, cow, quill, man, boy, jug, hive, 
sheep, zebra. 

After each of the letters has been taught by these 
picture word-lessons, a further series of lessons may be 
given on words, the names of objects, to the extent of 
sixty or more, until the pupil has learned to distinguish 
the letters readily at sight. 

The plan suggested in the ABC Method, of hav- 
ing the pupils write the words on their slates, should 
of course be practiced in connection with the Word 
Method. 

The chief advantages claimed for the Word Method 
of teaching the alphabet are — 

1. That it is Interesting. — The word which it is desired 
to teach may be introduced by a short and interesting 
conversation with reference to the object which the word 
represents. Pupils will be eager to learn the word-forms 



128 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

which represent the names of these objects, and equally 
anxious to learn the letters which compose these words. 

2. It is the Natural Method. — In learning to talk the 
child first becomes acquainted with words. These he 
uses as he hears them used by others, and he learns to 
associate certain words with certain objects, actions, qual- 
ities, etc. The transition from spoken words to written 
words is both easy and natural, and this, therefore, seems 
to be the natural method of procedure in teaching. 

3. It Aids Pupils in Learning to Pronounce. — This is 
particularly true when the picture can be used with the 
word. But, independent of the picture, the child learns 
to recognize words, to some extent at least, as he learns 
to recognize his playmates — not by analyzing them, but 
by their general form and appearance. 

I!. Suggestions on Teaching the Alphabet. 

1. Teach the small letters first. The pupils usually 
learn the capitals readily while using the small letters 
in copying words and sentences. 

2. Teach, as far as possible, the names and the sounds 
of letters at the same time. 

3. Let the lessons in teaching the alphabet be short — 
not more than ten minutes at most for a single lesson. 

4. Let the pupils w T ho are learning the alphabet recite 
in classes. The competition is valuable. 

5. The number in the alphabet-class should be limited 
to ten at most. A larger number are likely to be either 
listless or, if attentive, too boisterous. 

6. Teach pupils to recognize words as wholes and call 
them at sight. This will aid them greatly in learning 
to read. 



THE ALPHABET. 129 

7. Combine all the methods in teaching the alphabet 
if you are able to create most interest in this way. 

8. See that pupils in copying words use good-sized 
pencils, so that they may not contract such improper 
habits in the manner of holding the pen as may require 
years of training to correct. 

9. Teach children the script letters as soon as possible, 
that they may write their lessons instead of printing them 
on their slates. 

10. Put a book in the hands of a pupil occasionally, 
and let him select letters at the teacher's dictation. 

11. Do not waste any time in attempting to teach a 
pupil all the letters of the alphabet before you permit 
him to read. Put him to reading at the earliest possible 
moment, in order that he may become interested and see 
for himself that he is making progress. 

12. In teaching by the Word Method use first such 
forms as represent objects, and, if you are able to draw, 
make a picture on the board, and beneath this place the 
the name of the object. 

13. Teach such letters as p, b, q } and d, also c and e, 
a and n, by showing to the pupils how these forms differ 
and in what respects they are similar. 

14. If you can gather a sufficient number of blocks 
with letters pasted on them, let the pupils spell words 
by laying the blocks in proper order one after another. 

15. Let pupils be taught the letters both promiscu- 
ously and in their proper order — the first, that they 
may distinguish them anywhere; the second, in order 
that they may be able to consult any book or index 
arranged alphabetically. 

9 



CHAPTER III. 

Orthography. 

Orthography (from the Greek orthos, right, and 
graphein, to write) means, literally, to write right. It 
thus represents a proper writing of the words of a lan- 
guage. It is in reality a representation of spoken lan- 
guage by written or printed characters, which had its 
origin in picture-writing or hieroglyphics. It may be 
stated here that some languages even yet — notably the 
Chinese — continue to employ picture characters rather 
than letters to express the words of the language. The 
characters in the English language are entirely arbitrary, 
having no connection with the names they bear or the 
sounds they are used to represent. 

I. The Importance of Learning to Spell. 

It is important to learn to spell well. Accurate schol- 
arship and habits of close observation may in many cases 
be judged by one's spelling. To say that many thor- 
oughly educated persons are poor spellers is neither a 
compliment to their scholarship nor is it a correct state- 
ment. The man whose close and critical observation 
trains him to distinguish differences in color, form, etc. 
is equally critical with reference to the spelling, of the 

130 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 131 

words he writes, if his culture of perception, particular- 
ly as regards form, is worthy of the name. The man 
who accurately distinguishes form in crystals, flowers, 
petals, sepals, etc. ought to distinguish it in words, un- 
less his culture is altogether one-sided. 

It may be true that many over-estimate the importance 
of being able to spell well, but certainly there are few 
poor spellers whom we would be willing to accept as the 
representatives of thorough scholarship or as reliable au- 
thority on most other branches of study. As Dr. Currie 
has expressed it, " The possession procures no credit, but 
the want of it entails disgrace." That is, there mav be 
many who make a hobby of spelling, while they know 
but little else, but there are few that spell poorly whose 
scholarship would be accepted as authority on other sub- 
jects. 

It is frequently claimed that men a half century ago 
were much better spellers than are we of the present. 
In reply to this it might be said, They ought to have 
been, because then the school-course of study was very 
limited, consisting usually of spelling, reading, writing, 
and arithmetic onlv, and the number of words then used 
was also much smaller than at present. But the proof 
does not exist that our predecessors were better spellers 
on the average than the children of to-day. If a prac- 
tical test were desired, it might be profitable to have a 
number of ladies and gentlemen, products of the public 
schools of but forty years ago, enter into a contest with a 
similar number of young men and women of to-day in a 
written exercise, the only true test. Alas ! what might 
the result not be ! 



132 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

2. Difficulties in the Way of Teaching Orthography. 

The difficulties in the way of teaching English orthog- 
raphy are greater than those encountered in teaching the 
orthography of any other language. These difficulties 
account for the fact that pupils in studying English do 
not make such rapid progress frequently as is made by 
pupils in studying French, German, and other languages. 
Indeed, orthography is one of the most difficult studies 
that the student of English is called upon to pursue, and 
the greater number of failures in this branch than in 
others in all competitive examinations is strong proof 
of the fact. 

The principal difficulty encountered in learning the 
spelling of English lies in the fact that our language is a 
composite one, derived from almost every other spoken lan- 
guage. Words are introduced from the tongue of almost 
every nationality with which either England or America 
has had intercourse. Thus we have obtained bouquet, 
chateau, depot from the French ; coffee, cipher, assassin 
from the Arabic; embargo, coyote, caste from the Spanish; 
knave, waltz from the German ; amen, cherub, seraph from 
the Hebrew; tobacco, opossum, moccasin from the Indian ; 
sloop, schooner, boor from the Dutch ; and so on with a 
large part of what we now call English. The basis 
of our language is the Anglo-Saxon, to which have 
been added words largely taken from the Norman 
French, the Latin, the Greek, etc. Thus, in learning 
to spell modern English we necessarily learn to spell, to 
some extent at least, almost every language from which 
we^have appropriated words. 

Most of the irregularities of our language arise from 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 13 



o 



the composite character of English. Some arise from the 
use of silent letters, some from the fact that our language 
is not phonetic, and some from the fact that often a com- 
bination may be pronounced in various ways, as au in 
gauge, maul, etc. 

There was a time in the history of English when all 
spelling seems to have been irregular. It is said, for 
instance, that the word it was spelled also yt, ytt, hit, hitt, 
itt, hyt, hytt. We have made much improvement on the 
condition of spelling at that time, and yet the number 
of words found in the standard dictionaries of to-day 
in which the spelling is various, as in theatre, theater, 
defence, defense, etc., is said to be about four thousand. 

3. Methods of Recitation. 

There are properly two methods of conducting a reci- 
tation in orthography — the Oral and the Written. These 
have been called methods of teaching, but improperly so. 
One depends on the sense of hearing, and the other on 
that of sight, to determine the proper form of the word. 

1. The Oral Method. 

The Oral Method is that in which the pupil names 
the letters orally in the order in which they are found in 
the word. In preparing the lesson the pupil memorizes 
the order in which the letters are placed, associating the 
sound to some extent with the letters themselves. 

Advantages of the Oral Method. — The following are 
claimed as the chief advantages of the Oral Method : 

1. Pupils are taught to pronounce words while learn- 
ing to spell them. 



134 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

2. They also acquire facility and readiness in the 
syllabication of words. 

3. Time is sometimes saved by spelling orally. 

Disadvantages of the Oral Method. — Among the chief 
disadvantages of the Oral Method of recitation are the 
following : 

1. Pupils who spell well orally do not always spell 
correctly by the Written Method. 

2. The principal value of spelling is its application in 
writing ; this value is lost in oral spelling. 

3. The number of words spelled by each pupil by 
the Oral Method is not so great as that by the Written 
Method. 

The Oral Method is the one which has been pursued 
for centuries, and its chief merit lies in its age, though 
there are times when, for the sake of creating interest 
or variety in recitation, it may be well to conduct a 
recitation in orthography orally. 

Variations of the Oral Method. 

1. Position of Pupils. — The pupils having been called 
to class, they may be required either to sit or to stand. 
If what is usually known as the " trapping system " is 
pursued, where the post of honor is the head of the 
class, it is better to have the class stand, but always in 
as graceful a position as possible, and as nearly in a 
straight line as may be convenient. The teacher should 
then place himself in such a position that he may com- 
mand the eye of every child in the class. 

2. Assignment of Words. — The method of assignment 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 1 35 

will depend somewhat on the system pursued. If the 
trapping system be not pursued, but little need be said 
as to the manner of assignment; but if the trapping 
system be used, then care must be taken that pupils do 
not anticipate the teacher's method of assignment. The 
methods of assignment are various; the following are 
the chief: 

Promiscuous Assignment — By the promiscuous method 
the teacher may begin the assignment of w T ords at the 
foot of the first column and proceed upward ; the next 
day, by beginning at the last column ; then by passing 
across the page from side to side, then again by going 
diagonally across, then down the columns, then up and 
down alternately, varying the method nearly every day, 
so that the pupils may not anticipate the method of pro- 
cedure and prepare themselves accordingly. 

Pupils' Assignment-— -Sometimes it will be profitable 
to permit such pupils as have held the post of honor 
the greatest number of times during the month to take 
the place of the teacher for a day or two in assigning 
words ; this as a reward for good work. The teacher 
must of course hold himself in readiness to support the 
pupil so honored in case he get into difficulty. 

3. Attention to Mistakes. — The method of spelling 
may be varied by the teacher's passing to the next 
word when one has been incorrectly spelled, requiring 
the pupils to notice and make all corrections; or he 
may pass the same word to the next pupil, showing 
thus that it was incorrectly spelled. By the former 
method the attention of the pupils is held more closely, 
as the one who detects the error and makes the correction 
first should be entitled to take the place of the one who 



136 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

first missed the word, or the head of the class, if it passed 
by the head without being detected. 

This method may be varied also by the teacher's 
assigning the same word several times in succession, 
though it may have been spelled correctly the first 
time. This plan not only keeps a class attentive, but 
it also makes each pupil decide according to his actual 
opinion. 

Cautions on Oral Spelling. 

1. Do not give more than one trial in oral spelling. 
All trials after the first are liable to be mere guesses. 

2. Do not pronounce the word more than once to the 
class. It is the pupil's business to be attentive and hear 
the first time the word is pronounced. An exception 
should be made to this caution only when the pupil 
was prevented from hearing by some unavoidable 
noise. 

3. Do not mispronounce words to assist pupils in spelling 
them. Pronounce each word as it would be pronounced 
in good reading or correct conversation. Do not say 
an-i-mate, sep-a-rate, etc. more distinctly than you 
would in reading these words. 

4. Do not permit pupils to use unnatural tones in spell- 
ing. The tendency is to pitch the voice too high and 
spell too loud. 

5. Do not permit pmpils to spell words in the order in 
which they have studied them. The writer has seen pupils 
to the number of ten or more spell the words of the book 
without the teacher's doing more than saying to the pupil 
at the head of the class, " Mary, you may spell the first 
word ;" and the teacher thought he was doing good work. 
When words are spelled in the order in which they are 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 1 37 

found in the book, pupils are apt to commit to memory 
only such as they expect to spell. 

6. Have -pupils pronounce before spelling a word. This 
will show whether they know what the word is, and pre- 
vent the excuse so often given, that they did not under- 
stand the word. 

7. Require the pupil to pronounce each syllable correctly. 
Thus, in the word liniment have him spell it I i n (Itn) i 
(i) m e n t (m&nt), and then pronounce the word as a 
whole. As to whether he should go back each time 
and repronounce all the previously pronounced sylla- 
bles in connection with the last one added, is a matter 
which has been much discussed on both sides. Some 
have claimed that to repronounce each time gives cul- 
ture to the vocal powers, but it seems to be a good deal 
of work to secure a small result. 

8. Do not require pupils to commit to memory all the 
words of the lesson. Select those that are most difficult 
and most likely to be misspelled. 

9. Have an occasional spelling -match to keep up 
variety and interest, but be careful that pupils are 
not permitted to tease one another after the match 
has been concluded. 

10. Require pupils to spell phoniccdly also. This will 
train them to utter the elementary sounds correctly, and 
teach them to recognize what letters in a word are silent. 

2. The Written Method. 

The Written Method of recitation is that in which 
the pupil writes on slate, paper, or blackboard the 
letters of a word in their proper order. In preparing 
the lesson the pupil regards not so much the sound as 



138 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

the form of the word. The sense of sight is depended 
upon as the main power by which the child acquires a 
knowledge of the word, and on this form as impressed 
on the mind he relies for his ability to reproduce the 
word with all its elements correctly arranged. 

Advantages of the Written Method. — The chief advan- 
tages of the Written Method of recitation in spelling are 
the following : 

1. We learn to spell more readily by sight than by 
sound. The form of the word-picture is more readily 
impressed upon the mind and more readily reproduced. 

2. Pupils are required in their life-w 7 ork to use spelling 
almost W'holly by writing. They are rarely called upon 
to spell orally, but even the letters they write require 
them to reproduce words by writing, and not orally. 

3. Pupils are enabled to spell a much greater number 
of words during a recitation than by the Oral Method. 

4. All pupils are kept busily employed, and the atten- 
tion of all is held by this method. 

5. Pupils are enabled to examine the misspelled words, 
detect the errors, and make the proper correction. 

6. Written spelling is a more accurate test of scholarship. 

Disadvantages of the Written Method. — The only serious 
disadvantage of the Written Method of recitation is that 
more time is usually required to conduct a recitation ; but 
even this objection may be shown to have no force w 7 hen 
we take into consideration the fact that in oral spelling 
but few pupils receive any great number of w T ords each. 
If the teacher were to select ten or fifteen of the most 
difficult w r ords in the lesson, and require these to be 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 139 

written, he would do much more good than by spelling 
a larger number orally, and be able to do the work in a 
shorter period of time. 

Variations of the Written Method. 

The recitation by the Written Method may be con- 
ducted on the blackboard or slates, or by the use of 
blank-books. 

1. The Blackboard Method.— By this method the pupils 
are required to pass to the blackboard, and, after having 
erased any work remaining from a previous recitation, di- 
vide the space into sections by drawing vertical lines by 
which to separate their work from that of their neighbors. 

In writing the words on the board the whole class may 
write each word as pronounced by the teacher, or the class 
may be divided into sections of twos or threes. The 
pupils, in case they are divided into sections of twos, 
may begin numbering at one end of the board, calling 
out alternately in order one, two ; one, two ; or if in sec- 
tions of threes, calling their numbers, one, two, three; one, 
two, three; and so on. The teacher then pronounces a 
different word to each section alternately as rapidly as 
the pupils can place them on the board. 

The Manner of Writing. — -The words should be written 
in vertical columns rather than across the board. It is 
best also to begin each word with a small letter, unless 
the word is such as to demand a capital letter at all 
times; and it is well, if there be time, to have the 
pupils mark the correct accent of each word. 

A variation of this exercise consists in using the dia- 
critical signs and applying them in indicating the proper 
pronunciation of each word. The silent letters may have 



140 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

a line drawn either under them or through them, as may 
be agreed upon. 

Corrections. — After the words have been written the 
pupils may be requested to exchange places, and each 
review the work of another as the teacher proceeds to 
spell the words correctly. 

The method may be varied by having each pupil 
correct his own mistakes as the teacher spells the words. 

A second variation consists in having one of the 
pupils spell the words for his section from the work 
before him on the board, the teacher being careful to 
guard against permitting any errors to pass unnoticed. 

The corrected words may be marked with a cross after 
them, or by drawing a line under them, or by placing a 
figure, 1, 2, etc., after each. 

The Misspelled Words. — It is a good plan for both the 
teacher and the pupils to keep a list of the misspelled 
words, or at least those misspelled by the majority of 
the class. These may be made the subject of a review 
lesson, and those which are specially likely to be mis- 
spelled may be called up frequently until the pupils are 
no longer likely to misspell them. 

The advantage of the Blackboard Method lies in the 
fact that the teacher can keep in sight all the work of 
the pupils, and when the class is divided into sections it 
is almost impossible for the pupils to copy from one 
another without detection. 

The objections to the Blackboard Method are that in 
some schools there is not sufficient blackboard surface to 
accommodate a whole class at the board, and that there 
is greater opportunity to copy from one another than by 
other written methods. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 141 

2. The Slate Method. — In this method the pupils write 
their words on their slates, as described in the Blackboard 
Method. The pupils may be permitted to write at their 
desks, but it is better that they come forward to the reci- 
tation-benches and do the work there, as it prevents their 
copying from slips of paper or from their books. 

Corrections, — At a signal given by the teacher the 
pupils may be required to exchange slates, passing them 
one day to the right one space, the next day to the left 
one space or to the right two spaces, and thus continually 
changing the order, that no two pupils may be tempted 
to make an agreement not to correct each other's words 
and thus deceive the teacher. It may be wise to have 
each pupil at times retain his own slate and correct his 
own errors, but only when the class is wholly trust- 
worthy. 

The chief objections to the Slate Method are, first, 
that the teacher has not the opportunity, or if the oppor- 
tunity not the time, to examine the work on the slates; 
and, secondly, that pupils will sometimes prepare their 
lesson on the slate while at their seats, aud then erase 
the words only partially, so that they may be enabled to 
copy them when they come to class. This difficulty 
may be avoided by the teacher's pronouncing the words 
promiscuously and not in the order of the book. 

3. The Blank-book Method.— In this method blank- 
books prepared for the purpose are used. These are 
ruled with each word-space ready numbered, with addi- 
tional space left below on which to write the misspelled 
words. 

The manner of writing the words is the same as in the 



142 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

Blackboard Method, with this difference — that if ink be 
used it will be better to have pupils remain at their desks 
while writing: the exercise. 

In correcting it is usually best, unless the class be very 
large, for the teacher to examine the words and mark 
each one that is incorrectly spelled ; or the corrections 
may be made by the pupils themselves, as suggested in 
the other methods. The misspelled words should be 
written, correctly spelled, in the space below, and thus 
a permanent record will be kept which will enable the 
pupil to see what words he is most liable to misspell. 
. Any of the written methods are valuable, and, in gen- 
eral, they are preferable to the Oral Method of conduct- 
ing a recitation in this branch, but the Oral Method will 
frequently be found valuable in giving variety to the 
school-work. 

4. Preparation for the Recitation. 

Whatever the method of recitation in orthography, 
the method of preparation for the recitation is the im- 
portant work to be considered. 

All lessons in orthography, particularly first lessons, 
should be arranged according to some analogy, in order 
that the pupil in preparing them may have the benefit 
of acquiring the form while he makes comparisons. 
This analogy may be an analogy of vowel-sound, as in 
man, pan, ran, etc., or it may be an analogy of termina- 
tions, as in tenable, salable, arable, etc., or it may be both, 
as in arbor, harbor, parlor, etc., charger, larger, darker, 
farmer, etc. In this way the work of teaching spelling 
may be greatly simplified. 

Pupils, from the most primary to the most advanced, 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 143 

should be required to prepare their lessons by writing 
them on their slates. Those who are not able to write 
may be permitted temporarily to print the words, but 
writing should be substituted for printing as soon as 
possible. This is the important part of the work in 
teaching spelling, for by this manner of preparation the 
form is impressed on the mind of the child, and he at 
the same time acquires valuable muscular training of 
the hand which will fit him for subsequent work in 
both writing and drawing. 

5. General Suggestions on Teaching Spelling. 

1. Combine Methods. — Teachers should make a judi- 
cious combination of the Oral and the Written Method 
of recitation in spelling. The Oral Method helps to 
secure correct pronunciation and awaken a lively inter- 
est, while the Written Method trains the eye to recog- 
nize the form of words, and is the more practical in its 
results. 

2. Names of Objects. — Give pupils occasional exercise 
in spelling the names of objects with which they are 
familiar. These may be taken in classes or groups, as 
the names of domestic animals, the names of birds, the 
names of trees, the names of flowers ; or they may be 
taken promiscuously, as the names of objects found in 
the parlor, seen on the way to school, or heard in pass- 
ing along the street. The teacher should not, however, 
rely on this as a general exercise ; nothing is so reliable 
for teaching correct word-forms as the plan of grouping 
according to some analogy of spelling or sound. 

3. Geographical Names. — With the advanced classes it 
will be found a profitable exercise to spell both geograph- 



144 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

ical and biographical names, as the capes of the United 
States, the names of American poets, English novelists, 
or American historians. The exercise may, with a little 
help from the teacher, be made suggestive and exceed- 
ingly interesting. 

4. Spelling Sentences. — Vary the spelling exercise oc- 
casionally by dictating sentences, and require pupils to 
spell these. Vary the exercise by having pupils select 
such words as may be dictated by the teacher, and incor- 
porate them in sentences of their own construction. Sen- 
tences may be read from newspapers or interesting books, 
and these be written down by the pupil. Due care should 
of course be exercised by the teacher that the pupils use 
capital letters and punctuation-marks correctly, so far as 
thev have been taught. 

5. Pre-pronunciation. — In assigning the work for the 
next day the teacher should pronounce the lesson for the 
pupils, that they may study the words understand ingly. 
This exercise may be varied by having the pupils pro- 
nounce, while the teacher holds himself in readiness to 
correct any errors made The exercise may be varied 
also, particularly in primary classes, by the teacher's 
pronouncing the words and having the pupils imitate 
him. 

6. Difficult Words. — The teacher should select such 
words as are often misspelled, and give pupils frequent 
exercises in spelling these. Too much of our teaching 
of spelling has been valueless because we have followed 
the textbook too closely in this as in other branches. 
Such words as neither, piece, seize, leisure, many, very, 
great, forty, their, there, until, fulfill, etc., among the 
words of every-day use, ought to receive close attention ; 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 145 

and thus also with words not so frequently used, such as 
separate, beginning, director, absence, develop, judgment, and 
many others. 

7. Special Words. — In assigning a lesson the teacher 
should call attention to any special words that are likely 
to be misspelled or that present any special difficul- 
ty. Thus, he may call the attention of pupils to the 
fact that preparation, for instance, is derived from pre- 
pare, and is never, therefore, correctly spelled prepara- 
tion, as w r e so often find it. Thus, also he may show 
that the basis of intention is intent, while that of inten- 
sion is intense. The writer succeeded in correcting the 
habit in a young man of spelling the word preparation 
with, an e before the r by simply writing the word on a 
card and handing it to him, with the request that he 
would carry it in his vest-pocket for a little while. He 
has also frequently succeeded in correcting the habit of 
spelling existence with an a after the t by calling the at- 
tention of a class to the fact that of the two words exist- 
ence and resistance, the former begins with e and ends 
with ence, while the latter does not begin with e and 
ends with ance. 

8. Exchanging Slates. — A great advantage arises from 
having pupils exchange places at the blackboard or ex- 
change slates in correcting work. It makes pupils 
critical to observe the mistakes of others, and thus at 
the same time aids their own spelling. Proof-readers, 
the best spellers in the world, gain their efficiency 
largely by this process of criticism. 

9. Syllabication. — Exercises in dividing words into 
the syllables of which they are composed is valuable, 
not only in teaching pupils to divide words properly, 

10 



146 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

but also in training them to observe closely the relation 
of different parts of words. 

10. Groups of Words. — Some teachers oppose the use 
of a spelling-book. In such cases the teacher must of 
course originate a substitute. In doing so he should 
group the words according to some analogy, and dic- 
tate them to pupils, so that they may be copied into 
blank-books for future use. There is, however, great 
waste of time in collecting words where no book is 
used, and still greater waste where words are grouped 
without system, and the pupil compelled to study and 
spell at random as the words may be called from read- 
ing-lessons. The fault lies not in the spelling-book, but 
rather in the fact that many who use it are deficient in 
their methods of teaching. 

11. Phonic Spelling. — Pupils should be required to 
spell words both literally and phonically. A word is 
spelled literally by naming the letters of which it con- 
sists in their proper order, and phonically by giving the 
elementary sounds of which it consists in their proper 
order. For instance, c a t is the literal spelling of the 
word cat, while the phonic spelling of the same word 
would be properly represented by k a t. To say that 
the former, cat, spells see eighty is absurd. The mis- 
take arises from either an ignorant or a perverse mis- 
understanding of the difference* between literal and 
phonic spelling. 

Pupils learn to distinguish the silent letters and the 
powers of the various letters much more readily by a 
combination of both literal and phonic spelling. 

12. Orthography in all Branches. — One of the most 
effective methods of making good spellers is that of 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 147 

keeping the attention of pupils directed to the form 
of words in all branches of study. Whenever a mis- 
take in spelling is detected in the written work of the 
pupil, it matters not what the branch, it should be 
corrected at once. Occasional exercises should be 
given in connection with all branches in the correct 
spelling and the etymology of the various terms met 
with. 

13. Paragraph Spelling. — It will be found a valuable 
exercise to read to pupils occasionally a whole paragraph, 
or even a story, with the purpose of having them copy 
as you read, and then exchange slates, and as the teacher 
spells the words mark the mistakes, as in the ordinary 
recitation. 

14. Committing all tlie Words. — It is a great waste of 
time to require pupils to commit to memory and repeat 
all the words of a spelling-lesson, and it is a still greater 
waste of energy. 

15. Definitions. — Let pupils occasionally explain the 
meaning of words. It is held by many progressive 
teachers that it is useless to learn the spelling of words 
which we do not understand. Do not, however, insist 
on formal definitions. If the pupil can substitute a 
word or a phrase which expresses the meaning equally 
well, accept it ; and if he can incorporate the word in 
an original sentence in such a way as to express the 
correct meaning, it will be still better. 

16. Etymology. — The spelling-lesson should be so con- 
ducted as to teach something of the origin and history of 
words. The pupil who is taught that dahlia is derived 
from the name of the botanist Dahl will rarely miss the 
spelling of that word ; and, similarly, the pupils who are 



118 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

taught that camellia is named after the Jesuit Camelli, who 
brought the flower from the East, will not fail to spell the 
word with two Ps, and give the e its proper short sound 
instead of the long one so generally heard in the pronun- 
ciation of this word. Thus also with many other words 
whose origin and history in themselves are the source of 
quite as valuable information as the formal spelling of 
the words. 

Something may be done also in the work of forming 
the derivatives from roots when once the pupils under- 
stand the force of even a portion of the prefixes and 
suffixes which thev use daily. 

17. Words for Composition. — An exceedingly interest- 
ing exercise in spelling is that of taking some word, and 
from the letters of which it consists forming a number 
of other words, using no letter any more frequently than 
it occurs in the original word. Thus, from the word 
Baltimore the pupil may form bat, balm, bate, bait, bale, 
bar, bare, etc. to the number of more than two hundred 
words. It is well sometimes to give a short period of 
time, say five minutes, and have the whole class contest, 
and then either write their words on the board or those 
alone having the greatest number may w T rite them on the 
board. 

The exercise may be varied by having the class divided 
into several sections, consisting of an equal number of 
pupils in each, and having these sections contest with one 
another, the total number of words written in each sec- 
tion to be counted in the summing up. Pupils may also 
have a longer time — for instance, a week or more — when 
it will be found that even the parents will become inter- 
ested in the work. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 149 

18. False Orthography. — The correction of false or- 
thography lias the same force in impressing the rules 
of spelling on the memory as has the correction of false 
syntax in impressing the rules for the correct construc- 
tion of sentences. The principle is, not that we learn 
the right by seeing the wrong, but that we become crit- 
ical and observant in correcting the wrong so as to make 
it conform to usage. The most correct spellers are proof- 
readers, who are constantly on the alert to detect the mis- 
takes of others. The same is true to a certain extent with 
teachers. There is not a teacher worthy of the name 
who does not come out of the school at the close of the 
term a stronger scholar in both spelling and syntax than 
he was when he went in, and all because his wits have 
been sharpened in his efforts to correct the mistakes of 
his pupils. 

That we remember the wrong form in preference to 
the right when we see a misspelled word, is as sensible 
an assertion as to say that when we hear incorrect speech 
we naturally imitate it in preference to that which we 
know to be correct, or that we naturally incline to such 
mistakes in mathematics and other sciences as violate the 
rules. This is conceding a little too much to the doctrine 
of original sin. 

If an exercise in the correction of false orthography 
be properly conducted, requiring the pupil to point out 
the error, state the rule that is violated, and make the 
proper correction, the exercise may be made not only val- 
uable, but also intensely interesting, and no teacher need 
have any fear that the incorrect form will cling to the 
memory of the child, and no teacher who has conducted 
the exercise properly ever found such to be the result. 



150 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

19. Rules for Spelling. — The English language being 
derived from so many different languages, there are but 
few rules for spelling that are not without many excep- 
tions. - These few, however, apply to many words, and are 
important. The teacher should give continued attention 
in making an application of them wherever possible to 
the spelling of words. Pupils will thus be enabled to 
avoid many errors. 

The most important of these rules are the following : 

1. Words eliding in silent e generally drop the e on re- 
ceiving an additional syllable beginning with a vowel ; as, 
moveable, movable. 

2. Words ending in silent e generally retain the e on 
receiving an additional syllable beginning with a conso- 
nant; as, hateful. 

3. Words ending in J preceded by a consonant change 
the j to i before any other termination or additional syllable 
than 's and those beginning with i ; as, witty, wittily. 

4. When a vowel precedes the final J, or when a suffix is 
added beginning with i, the J is generally retained in words 
on receiving an additional termination ; as, boy, boyish. 

5. Monosyllables and words accented on the last syllable, 
ending with a single consonant preceded by a single vowel, 
double the final consonant on taking an additional syllable 
beginning with a vowel ; as, get, getting — begin, beginning. 

6. When a word ends with two consonants, when the last 
consonant is preceded by a, diphthong, or when the accent is 
not on the last syllable, the final consonant is not doubled on 
receiving an additiorial syllable beginning with a vowel; as, 
cheat, cheated — benefit, benefited. 

7. In derivative words ending in the syllable full, one of 
the Ys is dropped ; as ? pailful. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 151 

8. In such words as receive, believe, etc., C is usually fol- 
lowed by ei, and the other letters of the alphabet by ie. Siege 
and besiege are the most important exceptions to this rale. 

9. Words relating to matter end in ceous, as arenaceous ; 
all others in cious. The word silicious is the only excep- 
tion, but this is spelled also siliceous. 

There are of course some exceptions to the foregoing 
rules. (See the author's Tests in Spelling and Pronun- 
ciation, pp. 69 and 70.) The number of exceptions, how- 
ever, is small in comparison to the large number of words 
covered by the rules. 

20. Spelling-Games. — Spelling, like other branches, is 
best taught by making it interesting. Anything that 
will tend to create interest will assist in making the 
teacher's methods successful. Among the plans for 
securing variety and interest are Spelling-Games, a few 
of which are explained below. 

The pupils having been placed in a line near the plat- 
form, the teacher takes up some class of words, as the 
names of domestic animals, and proceeds to name the 
first word; a pupil at the head of the line is called upon 
to spell it, and, if he fail, he takes his seat; if he spell 
it successfully, he pronounces a word naming an object 
of the same kind for the next pupil to spell ; and so on, 
each pupil failing to spell his word or to name one for 
the next pupil to spell takes his seat until all are spelled 
down. 

The exercise may be varied by selecting different classes 
of w T ords from day to day, or by spelling several classes 
in a single recitation. Thus, the following may all be 
called into use, and the exercise be made not only in- 
teresting, but §lsp profitable : 



152 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

Topics for Spelling-Games. 

Trees, Flowers, Articles of Iron, States of the 

Fruits, Minerals, Articles of Wood, United States. 

Fishes, Cities, Names of Boys, Rivers, 

Birds, Furniture, Names of Girls, Wild Animals. 

Other games may be devised which will prove equally 
interesting and practical. The following are suggestions 
only, the beginning of the game alone being given : 

1. Let each pupil spell a monosyllable, and name one 
for the next to spell. 

2. Let each pupil spell and name a dissyllable. 

3. Let each pupil spell and name a trisyllable. 

4. Vary the exercise and make it more difficult by 
requiring the next word to begin with the letter with 
which the preceding word ended. 

5. Spell words containing a special sound, as a in arm, 
a in ask, a in all, long e, etc. 

6. The first pupil may name and spell a word of one 
syllable; the second spells a word that rhymes with 
the first, and names a new 7 word ; the third pupil spells 
a rhyme to the new word given by the second ; and so 
on. Give the same exercise in dissyllables and trisyl- 
lables. 

21. Illustrations. — It will be found a valuable exercise 
to have pupils illustrate the rules for spelling. Thus, let 
them bring to class as a part of the lesson a list of twen- 
ty words illustrating the rule for dropping the final e; 
again, for retaining the final e; also, for doubling the 
final consonant before syllables beginning with a vowel- 
sound. In a similar manner give them an occasional 
exercise in illustrating the other important rules. In 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 1 53 

this manner the rules as well as the exceptions will he 
firmly impressed on the minds of the learners. 

Primary pupils may be exercised in writing the names 
of objects — articles of dress, groceries, domestic utensils, 
fowls, garden flowers, wild flow r ers, trees, names of school- 
mates, States, rivers, articles of food, and similar words. 

22. Mixed Exercises. — It will be found a valuable ex- 
ercise in making pupils critical to write a list of words 
on the board, some of them correct and others incorrect, 
and then have the pupils, w T hile in recitation, write the 
wdiole list correctly. It will make them critical and ob- 
servant. An equally valuable exercise is afforded by the 
teacher's writing a poorly-spelled letter or composition 
on the board, and having the whole class rewrite it 
properly. 

23. The Spelling-Match.— The Spelling-Match will 
probably always be popular, because it is exciting and 
affords pupils an opportunity to measure their strength 
with one another. The method of conducting such a 
match is so well understood that it need only be men- 
tioned here. 

The most popular method is that known as spelling 
dozen, in which each pupil, as he misses a word, takes 
his seat, when the word is passed to the next or a new 
word is taken up. The contest continues in this way, 
the pupils taking their seats one by one until none re- 
main standing. The side having the last representative 
or the largest number of representatives on the floor at 
the close of the contest wins the match. 

A variation of this plan is that in which a record of 
the various gains is kept. Thus, if a word starting with 
a side is misspelled by that side and correctly spelled by 



154 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

the opposite side, it is considered a gain for the latter, 
and is so marked on the tally- sheet; but if it is missed 
by one side and corrected afterward by the same side, it 
counts for neither party. 

There are also other variations, which it would not be 
profitable to discuss here. In a spelling-match the cau- 
tions given with reference to oral spelling should be ob- 
served closely, in order that the contest may be conducted 
in the fairest manner possible. No opportunity should 
be given for any dissatisfaction with the teacher's decis- 
ions or with his manner of conducting the contest. 



CHAPTER IV.. 
Pronunciation. 

Pronunciation is the correct utterance of syllables 
and words ; it includes both Articulation and Accent 

Articulation is the utterance of the elementary sounds 
contained in a syllable or a word. Without clear and dis- 
tinct articulation there can be no correct pronunciation. 
It is therefore specially important that the elementary 
sounds of the language be frequently repeated and 
thoroughly learned. 

Accent is the stress of voice on a particular syllable 
of a word. All words of two or more syllables have 
one of the syllables accented. Words of more than 
three syllables often have two of the syllables accented 
— one more forciblv than the other; the more forcible 
accent of the two being called the primary accent, and 
the less forcible the secondary accent. The custom of 
the best and the most cultivated speakers determines 
the proper accent. Accent is therefore best learned from 
spelling-books and dictionaries, in which this custom is 
recorded and the proper accent marked. 

Words may be pronounced either on seeing the forms 
or on hearing the letters named of which they consist. 
In reading we pronounce always by seeing the words. 
If the forms be familiar, we pronounce readily ; but 

155 



156 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

if otherwise, we analyze the word into the letters of 
which it consists and give to these their usual power. 

I. Difficulties in the Way of Teaching Pronunciation. 

The irregularity of English orthography, as explained 
in connection with the methods of teaching spelling, 
makes it equally difficult to teach pronunciation. Some 
letters under certain circumstances are silent, some rep- 
resent more than one sound, and sounds are represented 
sometimes by several different letters. All this makes 
the correct pronunciation of a word an uncertainty to 
the learner. 

The pronunciation of the English language is regulated 
by custom, and is therefore, to a great extent, arbitrary. 
This is seen in the pronunciation of such words as ob- 
ligatory, which takes the accent on the first syllable, 
though it would be much more natural to place it on the 
second. Different parts of the same country vary greatly 
in the pronunciation of many words, and people of cul- 
ture, even in the same community, differ in the pronun- 
ciation of such words as economical, epoch, ballet, envelope, 
leeward, junior, and a host of others. 

The standard of pronunciation is the usage of cultured 
literary society. This usage, as has been said, is re- 
corded in our standard dictionaries for the various pro- 
nunciations sanctioned, and to these we should refer con- 
stantly where there is a possible doubt of correct pronun- 
ciation. Where the American standards agree we are 
safe in accepting their dictum as correct. Where they 
differ it will be necessary to refer to some standard Eng- 
lish works, as Nuttall, and to the most highly-cultured 
literary men. 



PKON UN CIATION. 157 

Another difficulty in teaching pronunciation lies in the 
fact that most of those who associate with the children 
to be taught are continually making mistakes, not only 
in pronunciation proper, but particularly in the matter 
of clear articulation. Much of this is the result of habit, 
as we imitate others in their mistakes quite as certainly 
as in that which w T e believe to be correct. 

The Teacher's Habits of Pronunciation. — No one needs 
to be more cautious than the teacher in his pronunciation. 
His pronunciation will be the model which the pupils 
will imitate. No matter how much he may drill them 
in proper pronunciation, if he be slovenly or incorrect 
in his own speech he will find his example more power- 
ful than his teaching. Let him, therefore, strive to ac- 
quire correct habits, in order that they who imitate him 
and follow his example may pronounce correctly as a 
matter of habit. 

II. Methods of Teaching Pronunciation. 

The chief methods of teaching pronunciation are the 
Associative, the Alphabetic, and the Phonic. 

1. The Associative Method. 

This method proceeds by teaching the pronunciation of 
words bv associating the name with the word-form. The 
method has been fully described under the AVord Method 
and the Object Method of teaching a child to read. 

It is the natural method for beginners ; it is the 
method that the child pursues in acquiring knowledge 
from others ; and it may also be claimed as being the 
most logical, as it proceeds from the known to the un- 
known, from the idea to the word. 



158 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

The method is, however, limited in its application. 
By the Associative Method the child is able to pro- 
nounce only those words whose pronunciation it has 
been taught. By this method, whatever knowledge it 
may lose is gone without hope of recovery. Nor is 
the child able to glean any knowledge for itself. The 
Associative Method is therefore not valuable except to 
a limited extent. 

2. The Alphabetic Method. 

This method of teaching pronunciation consists in 
teaching the letters of the alphabet with their corre- 
sponding sounds, and having the pupils pronounce words 
by observing the combination of letters. They may 
name the letters first, or they may glance at them and 
then pronounce the w T ord by their knowledge of the 
powers of the various letters. 

The argument that naming the letters is necessarily a 
part of the Alphabetic Method is not correct. The child 
that pronounces words at sight looks at letter after letter, 
and judges in its own mind as to the force of each letter, 
and pronounces the word according to that judgment, as 
any one may determine for himself if he will take a class 
of children that know nothing of the elementary sounds 
°s such. The process by which they determine the force 
of the various letters is possibly a painfully slow one, 
but there can be no question that to a great extent w r e 
all learn to pronounce in that w r ay. 

Let a new word be placed before us ; we do not pro- 
nounce it by association, for we know T nothing of it, nor 
do we pronounce it by the phonic elements of which it 
consists, for we do not know what these are, nor are they 



PRONUNCIATION. 159 

represented in ordinary writing. Our only resort is to 
the letters of which the word consists. We see these, 
and, knowing their ordinary power and force, we are 
enabled to form a reasonably correct judgment of the 
pronunciation of the word at sight; and this we do 
by the Alphabetic Method. 

If pupils were taught the names of the letters only in 
learning the alphabet, this method of teaching pronun- 
ciation would be of little practical value, but no good 
teacher teaches the letters without also teaching the 
sounds which they represent, and no intelligent pupil 
learns the names of the letters by the old plan, in which 
the alphabet was taught as distinct from spelling and 
reading. The child whose exercises are selected proper- 
ly, as in lessons where there is an analogy of sound, 
something like the following : 



fan 


bet 


in 


dot 


bun 


man 


let 


bin 


hot 


fun 


pan 


met 


pin 


lot 


gun 


ran 


pet 


sin 


not 


run 


tan 


set 


tin 


rot 


_ sun 



will learn to pronounce readily and rapidly by the Al- 
phabetic Method, because, after pronouncing a few words, 
he begins to see that the shape of the mouth in pronoun- 
cing many of the letters is substantially the same as in 
giving the elementary sound which that letter repre- 
sents. 

The objection to the Alphabetic Method, as pursued 
in the old-time school, lies not so much against the 
method as against the illogical manner in which the 
words were arranged and the aimless way in which the 



160 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

teacher followed the book. The argument urged in 
speaking of a child's learning to read, that "The letters 
do not spell the words, and therefore the knowledge of 
the letters does not aid him in reading the words; they 
do spell something else, and therefore are an actual hin- 
drance in learning to read," is simply absurd — almost 
too absurd, indeed, to merit attention. Where would be 
the knowledge of the writer who advocates this argu- 
ment, or what would even a child's knowledge be worth, 
if it knew nothing of the alphabet and the power of 
the letters which the characters represent? As has been 
said before, much of the opposition to this method is 
based on the assumption which fails to distinguish be- 
tween the literal and the phonic spelling of a word. 
Words consist of letters as well as of sounds, and this 
distinction must be kept clear in the mind of the 
learner. Indeed, there could be no written language 
whatever without the characters (letters) which we use 
to represent spoken words. 

3. The Phonic Method. 

By the Phonic Method of teaching pronounciation the 
pupils are first taught the elementary sounds, and in con- 
nection with these the characters which represent them. 
These characters may be the letters of the alphabet with 
distinctive marks to indicate each sound, or they may 
consist of a special character to indicate each one of the 
forty or more distinct sounds. 

When the letters of the alphabet are used, the varia- 
tions in sound may be indicated as follows : ale, hi, art, 
all, etc., or by the usual diacritical marks as found in 
the dictionary. Necessarily, the consonants must also 



PRONUNCIATION. 161 

have special marks wherever a letter, as c y may repre- 
sent more than one sound, and the silent letters should 
be indicated, so that the* pupils may know which letters 
are sounded and which are silent in the pronunciation 
of a word. 

In order to make this method successful, it is neces- 
sary that the books be printed in marked type, or that 
the teacher mark each word with pen or pencil. It is 
claimed for this method by those who advocate it that it 
is both natural and philosophical. It would be both were 
our language a phonetic language, in which every sound 
is represented by a separate character. 

Serious objections have been raised to the purely phonic 
method : 

1. Pupils who have learned to pronounce by this 
method find the transition to unmarked letters a diffi- 
culty simply postponed, but made none the easier on 
that account. 

2. Pupils who learn to pronounce by the Phonic 
Method find a difficulty in learning to spell English 
as it is. 

3. There are many words in the English language 
which could not be classified by analogy of either spell- 
ing or pronunciation in such a way as to be of any use to 
the learner. 

When used with the Alphabetic and the Associative 
Method the Phonic Method is valuable, but we think 
the advocates of this method have claimed too much 
for it when used as a distinctive method, and the 
schools in which it is used as a distinctive method are 
few in number. 
11 



162 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

HI. Suggestions on Teaching Pronunciation. 

1. Make a judicious combination of all the methods 
in teaching pronunciation. 

2. Begin to teach words as suggested under the Word 
Method and the Object Method of teaching reading. 

3. In pursuing the Alphabetic Method do not fail to 
arrange the first lessons according to analogy of sound. 

4. Let the first lessons by the Alphabetic Method have 
no silent letters, no equivalents, and, as far as possible, no 
variable letters except the vowels. 

5. Let the children pronounce the words for themselves 
whenever possible. 

6. Train them to notice the position of the vocal or- 
gans, particularly in giving each consonant. 

7. If the spelling-book or other work used for pro- 
nouncing exercises is not properly arranged, use the 
blackboard and arrange words in such a manner as will 
permit you to teach pronunciation in a philosophical 
way. 

8. Train pupils to pronounce readily at sight as pre- 
paratory to teaching them to read. 

9. Let pupils look carefully at a word, to see the 
letters of which it is composed, and then name it with- 
out spelling it aloud. 

10. Have pupils analyze words into both their letters 
and their sounds. A good plan of conducting a new ex- 
ercise is the following: 

a. The teacher pronounces the word, and the pupil 
imitates. 

b. The pupil names the letters and pronounces the 
word. 



PRONUNCIATION. 163 

c. The pupil gives the sounds of the word and pro- 
nounces. 

d. The pupil pronounces the word at sight. 

11. Do not insist on differing with the pronunciation 
of those with whom you associate, unless their pronun- 
ciation is absolutely incorrect; even then train them 
rather to imitate you than correct them. They will 
see their mistakes for themselves. 

12. Do not use affected pronunciation. If you believe 
either and neither to be strictly correct, use them instead 
of either and neither ; but if you simply pronounce in 
this way to imitate somebody else, or pronounce so be- 
cause you want to appear scholarly, you will deceive no 
one so much as yourself. 

13. Always remember that pronunciation is a matter 
of taste and culture, and that while others may differ 
from you in their pronunciation, both you and they 
may be correct. 

14. Teach your pupils to form a habit of pronouncing 
correctly. Weakness of scholarship is more readily de- 
tected here even than in spelling. 

15. Give your pupils a list of frequently mispronounced 
words, and drill them every day on a few of these. You 
will be surprised, when you come to make up the list, to 
find how many you yourself have been accustomed to 
mispronounce. 

IV. Articulation. 

There are two steps in teaching Articulation: the first 
of these consists in training a child to distinguish the 
sounds of the language ; the second, in training him to 
utter them. 



164 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

Methods of Teaching Articulation. 

The methods of teaching Articulation are properly 
two — by Imitation and by Phonic Drill. 

Imitation. — Children learn to articulate much as they 
learn to talk, by imitating others. They speak natu- 
rally in imitation of their associates. Looking upon the 
teacher, as they do, in the light of being an authority in 
scholarship, they will naturally imitate him. It is there- 
fore specially important that his articulation be both 
clear and correct. Pupils to some extent imitate also 
their parents and older brothers and sisters, particu- 
larly if these be scholarly ; and it is important, there- 
fore, that these also be correct in their articulation if 
it is hoped to make the younger children correct in their 
speech. 

The teacher can do much in training his pupils to cor- 
rect articulation by pronouncing certain words or syl- 
lables and having his pupils imitate him closely. 

Phonic Drill. — This consists in a drill in the element- 
ary sounds. Pupils, as has been suggested, should have 
a frequent drill on these sounds until they are able to 
enunciate each one of them distinctly and correctly. The 
drill may with profit be carried through all grades of 
schools from the lowest to the highest. As has been 
heretofore suggested, these drills may be varied so as to 
include drills in rate, force, pitch, etc., in reading, and 
thus be made doubly useful. 

The ear should be carefully trained to distinguish the 
sounds, so that they may be given accurately. Particu- 



PRONUNCIATION. 1 G5 

lar care should be given to those which are difficult for 
some pupils, as s, ih,j } w, and others. 

Suggestions on Teaching Articulation. 

1. Drill pupils frequently on the pronunciation of 
sentences containing difficult combinations, for the pur- 
pose of giving them distinct articulation. Take such 
sentences as the following: She sells sea-shells; Shave 
a cedar shingle thin ; Masses of immense magnitude move 
majestically through the vast empire of the solar system. 

2. Where stammering is the result of habit, it may 
frequently be corrected by requiring the pupil to speak 
or read more deliberated. It is often the case that one 
who stammers in speaking or reading will sing faultless- 
ly, showing that in such a case stammering is not caused 
by a defect in the vocal organs, but that it is the result 
more probably of habit or excitement. 

When stammering is the result of timidity, the teacher 
must cultivate in the pupil a greater confidence in him- 
self. 

Unless there is some defect in the vocal organs, 
stammering may usually be corrected by having the 
pupil both speak and read for a time slowly. It is 
a curious fact that often one who stammers will read 
poetry, where the time is measured, much more readily 
than he will read prose. This is an additional argument 
in favor of the pupil's movement being deliberate. 

3. When lisping is the result of affectation, it may 
frequently be cured by a little judicious ridicule and by 
showing the pupil how it mars the beauty of speech. 
The teacher may in such a case read in imitation of the 
pupil. 



166 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

But, usually, lisping is the result of a defect in the 
tongue. The tongue is sometimes so long as to strike 
the teeth when the s-sound is to be produced, and the 
result is that the s changes to th, because the tongue, in- 
stead of being free, presses against the teeth or protrudes 
between them. In such cases the teacher should show 
the child how to place the tongue that the s-sound may 
be produced, and then have the pupil imitate him. Long 
practice is sometimes necessary to correct the fault. 

4. Slovenly and lazy speech should be corrected. 
There are many who mispronounce such words as 
government, something, nothing, which, wheat, etc., simply 
through carelessness. 

5. Local errors in articulation should receive the at- 
tention of the teacher. The use of s for z, v for w, w for 
v, th for d, ch for j, j for ch, d for t, p for b, etc., should 
be condemned and carefully corrected. 

The clipping of syllables, the adding of letters where 
not needed, and the substitution of one vowel-sound for 
another, as gospil for gosp&l, or i?inosUns for innocence, 
are all errors that ought to be corrected by the teacher 
whenever they occur. 

6. Caution pupils to articulate distinctly in conversa- 
tion as well as in reading or in more formal speech. 

7. Do not waste any time in teaching pupils how to 
place their vocal organs, except where their articulation 
is either indistinct or incorrect. 

V. Accent. 

In order to learn the general principles governing 
Accent, it is best for the student to consult one of the 
standard dictionaries, but the rules even as stated there 



PRONUNCIATION. 167 

are liable to very many exceptions, and it would not be 
profitable, therefore, to discuss them here. 

Compound words in English frequently, when first 
formed, seem to have two accents. This by many writers 
is indicated by the hyphen. Thus, originally we had the 
expression "a black board 7 ," then "a black-board 7 ," with 
accent on both syllables, and finally, " a blackboard," with 
the accent on the first syllable and the hyphen dropped. 
This rule is, however, so frequently violated that it can 
hardly be regarded as a rule. 

An important principle, which would save many mis- 
pronunciations were it generally understood, is that in 
compounds the adjective or modifying part of the word 
usually takes the accent, as in school' '-house, pen' -knife, 
bay' -rum, bay' -window, etc. 

Methods of Teaching Accent. 

Grouping. — Accent may be taught by grouping words 
according to the accented syllables. Thus, it will be 
found a valuable exercise to have pupils name a cer- 
tain number of words of two syllables, names of objects, 
accented on the first, then a number accented on the sec- 
ond, then a number of verbs accented on the second or 
on the first, and so on. 

Imitation. — Accent may be taught also by imitation. 
In this case it is necessarv that the teacher should be 
careful to give words their proper accent, in order that 
pupils may have correct models to imitate. If the teacher 
be in doubt as to the proper pronunciation of a word, he 
should consult the dictionary at once, in order that the 
pupils may have a correct guide. 



168 



METHODS OF TEACHING. 



Errors. — Pupils should be critical in their pronunciation 
of words. Their attention should be called particularly 
to such common words as they are liable to mispronounce 
in their daily conversation. Bad habits in pronunciation 
can be corrected only by the most persistent care and 
practice. 

Pronouncing Exercises. — These are quite important in 
teaching accent. The teacher may with profit substitute 
an exercise of this kind at least once a week for the reg- 
ular exercise in spelling. Teachers themselves will be 
surprised at the number of words which most persons 
mispronounce habitually. Words like the following may 
prove not only interesting, but also valuable, in show- 
ing pupils their mistakes both in accent and in uttering 
the vowel-sounds : 



abdomen, 


bomb, 


donkey, 


bromide, 


acclimate, 


booth, 


encore, 


inquiry, 


acoustics, 


boudoir, 


esquire, 


joust, 


allies, 


bouquet, 


forge, 


legislature, 


Adonis, 


broth, 


frost, 


lien, 


area, 


canine, 


idea, 


long-lived, 


assent, 


cascade, 


occult, 


microscopy, 


benzine, 


desist, 


isolated, 


mogul, 


orchestral, 


disdain, 


precedence, 


nausea, 


ornate, 


Persian, 


recluse, 


solitaire, 


overseer, 


phthisis, 


revolt, 


steam-engine, 


mamma, 


placard, 


romance, 


telegraphy. 



Suggestions on Teaching Accent. 
1. Give occasional exercises consisting of words pro- 



PRONUNCIATION. 169 

miscuously arranged, and have the pupils write these and 
mark the accent. 

2. Give occasional short pronouncing exercises in 
which the pupils write out the words and indicate not 
only the accent, but also the elementary sounds and the 
silent letters, by using diacritical marks. 

3. Have pronouncing-matches for the purpose of cre- 
ating interest and variety. In this case the teacher may 
spell the words or write a number on the board, and re- 
quire the pupils to copy them and mark the proper pro- 
nunciation ; or lists of words may be handed to the pupils, 
from which they pronounce orally. 

4. Call attention to words on which authorities differ 
in the location of accent or in which the accent may 
with authority be located in more than one place. Such 
words as malefactor or malefactor, cement' or cem'ent 
when used as a noun, car'mine or carmine', clem'atis 
or clema'tis, demonstrate or demonstrate, dec'orous or 
deco'rous, will serve the purpose. 

5. Train the pupils to use the dictionary intelligently. 
See that they understand how to use the diacritical 
marks there given. 



CHAPTER V. 

Lexicology. 

Lexicology is a term which has been used by some 
authors as naming the science which treats of the mean- 
ing of words. Etymology (from the Greek etymon, the 
true meaning, and logos, discourse) would probably be 
a more appropriate term. Either term will, however, 
answer our purpose. It is proposed here simply to 
show how the meaning of words may be acquired by 
the learner. 

It is necessary, of course, that a pupil should compre- 
hend fully the meaning not only of the words he uses, 
but also of those with which he comes in contact in his 
daily reading of books or newspapers. It is important 
that he should know the shades of meaning existing 
between words of somewhat . similar import, in order 
that he may express himself definitely and correctly. 

There are a number of ways by which we may ac- 
quire a correct knowledge of the meaning of words. 
Among them the following are the most important: 

1. By their Use in Conversation. — Children gain their 
first knowledge of the meaning of words by their use 
in the conversation of those around them. If the con- 
versation of the parents be incorrect, if the terms they 

170 



LEXICOLOGY. 171 

use be incorrectly applied, the child's habit of speech 
will be similarly incorrect. But, on the other hand, if 
the words used by the parents and other associates of a 
child be strictly correct, those of the child will also be 
correct. Children learn the meaning of many words 
because they hear them associated with objects, actions, 
or qualities in the daily conversation of those around 
them. 

2. By Reading. — When pupils have once learned to read 
they will glean the meaning of many words new to them 
as these are met with in the printed page. They learn the 
meaning here much as they do in conversation, by the 
force which the word seems to have in a sentence. It 
is a noticeable fact that children who read the most or 
have the most intelligent associates at home are they 
who have the choicest vocabulary and who make the 
most appropriate use of words. 

3. By their Use in Sentences. — Pupils learn the mean- 
ing of words readily also by their use in sentences. A 
word which used by itself is meaningless to a pupil 
when placed in a sentence may convey to him a definite 
idea. Indeed, children often grasp the meaning of 
words more readily and more correctly in this way than 
they can by consulting a formal definition as found in 
the dictionary. Every new book they read gives them 
not only new thoughts, but also the words with which to 
clothe those thoughts. 

4. By Definitions. — Formal definitions are in many 
cases necessary to give the learner a clearer conception of 
the meaning of a word. Many scientific terms could in 
no other way be taught equally well. We may speak of 
a fiord again and again, but until the pupil learns the 



172 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

definition or sees the object he has no clear idea as to 
what the word means. 

5. By Illustration. — The meaning of words may be 
taught by illustrations and experiments. Thus, the dif- 
ference between the meaning of the words inflammable 
and combustible may be illustrated to a child by showing 
that a number of substances burn without a flame, and 
are therefore simply combustible, while others burn with 
a flame, and are therefore not only combustible, because 
they burn, but inflammable, because they burn with a 
flame. Thus, also we may illustrate many other words 
as we teach them by showing the action or the object as 
we use the word. 

6. By the Study of Synonyms. — Synonyms are words 
which have the same general signification, as the two 
words love and like, with greater or less shade of difference 
in meaning. The English language is rich in synonyms, 
from the fact that it is a composite language, having 
acquired substantially the same term from various lan- 
guages. Thus, we have fatherly, motherly, etc. from the 
Anglo-Saxon, and the corresponding paternal, maternal, 
etc. from the Latin. 

The study of synonyms enables the pupil to express 
finer shades of meaning which would be impossible 
without them, and their misuse is often the source of 
very ridiculous errors. 

7. By the Study of Etymology. — By the study of ety- 
mology is here meant the technical study of the roots 
of words, together with the prefixes and suffixes by the 
aid of which other words are formed. The study of 
technical etymology often gives us a knowledge of the 
original signification of a word which we probably could 



LEXICOLOGY. 1 7 



o 



not reach in any other way. Thus, in the word educa- 
tion, when we learn that it is from the root educo, edn- 
care, to foster, to feed, to teach, we have a clearer notion 
of its strictly correct use ; and the same is true of other 
words. 

8. By the Study of Other Languages. — It is especially 
true that the study of Latin and Greek, which give us 
the basis of many of our derivative words, enables us 
to learn the meaning of many words in our language ; 
but it is true also that the study of other languages, 
particularly German and French, not only enlarges our 
vocabulary, but also enables us to have a clearer con- 
ception of the meaning of the words we use as derived 
from those languages. 

Suggestions on Teaching Lexicology. 

1. The conversation of those who are associated with 
children should be such as will enable the latter to gain a 
correct knowledge of the meaning of words. For this 
reason slang should be rigidly avoided. 

2. It will be profitable for the teacher to relate an 
anecdote or give an interesting narrative or description 
in choice language. His pupils will not fail to catch 
the words and make them a part of their own vocab- 
ulary. 

3. Pupils should be encouraged to read interesting 
books well written, such as Robinson Ch*usoe, The Swiss 
Family Robinson, and others in which the diction is pure 
and the style interesting. 

4. In the reading-lessons pupils should be asked to 
tell in their own language the meaning of certain 
words, or they may be permitted to substitute other 



174 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

words if they can preserve the meaning of the sentence 
unchanged. 

5. Pupils may show that they know the meaning of 
words by incorporating them in original sentences. 

6. Object-lessons on words may be given to teach ac- 
curate discrimination in the meaning. 

7. In teaching the meaning of words by definitions 
the teacher must see that the definition is not more 
difficult to grasp than the w r ord defined. 

8. Definitions should be correct. Thus, to define the 
world as the universe is both absurd and incorrect. 

9. It is better to learn the meaning of words in sen- 
tences than by the use of definitions. An alcove is a 
recess, but for the teacher to say in his programme that 
the school will have an " alcove " between the exercises 
would scarcely be considered correct. 

10. Teachers should not require pupils to commit formal 
definitions, except where they are the scientific definitions 
of terms. 

11. Pupils should be trained to make a note of such 
new words as they meet, and examine the dictionary to 
learn their true meaning. 

12. The study of synonyms should be encouraged, and 
pupils should be required to illustrate the difference in 
sentences. Pupils will thus learn where words are in- 
terchangeable and where they are not. 

13. Scientific definitions should be as clearly stated 
as possible. 

14. In teaching the etymology of words the subject 
should be made practical. Both the analytic and the 
synthetic method may be used. The analytic is the 
more interesting for beginners. 



LEXICOLOGY. 175 

15. It will be found a valuable exercii^ to take a 
root, as traho, I draw, and let the pupils write as many 
words derived from it as possible, such as attract, attrac- 
tion, subtraction, subtrahend, distraction, traction, trace, 
tract. 

16. Pupils should be taught to study the history of 
words. Let the teacher give them the history of a few 
such words as pagan, idiot, silly, knave, candidate, prevent, 
stove, etc. These will prove of such interest that children 
will readily search out the history of any word suggested 
by the teacher. Teachers may gain valuable aid from 
Trench On the Study of Words and the works of Whit- 
ney, Marsh, Home Tooke, Max Miiller, Scheie de Vere, 
and others. 

17. The meaning of w T ords as used in a figurative as 
well as in a literal sense should be explained. 

18. The teacher should show to pupils how the lan- 
guage changes by the admission of new words as needed, 
and by dropping the old ones when no longer necessary 
to express thought. 

19. Never require the definition of a word whose 
meaning is already well known. 

20. Mark the difficult words in the advanced reading- 
lesson, and require pupils to search for their meaning. 

21. Require each pupil occasionally to bring to class a 
w r ord and define it orallv, then use it in a sentence. 

22. The teacher should frequently give the pupils 
equivalent terms for words they use. Thus, if they 
use the Saxon nightly, he should give them the Latin 
nocturnal, or if they use the Latin felicity, let the teacher 
give them the Saxon happiness. In this way he will not 
only enlarge their vocabulary, but also train them to dis- 



176 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

tinguish accurately and readily the various shades of 
meaning expressed. 

23. Exercises similar to the following will prove not 
only interesting, but also valuable. These may be con- 
ducted as word-matches, somewhat in the nature of 
spelling-matches : 

a. Let each pupil in turn give a word having a certain 
suffix, as er, and define. Thus, singe)*, one who sings. 

6. Let each pupil in turn name a word having a certain 
prefix, as con, and define. 

c. Name a root, asfacio, and let each pupil in turn give 
a word derived from it, and define. 

d. Let the teacher name a word, and the pupil give a 
synonym. 

6. Let a pupil name a word, and his opposite give a 
synonym, and this pupil in turn name a word for which 
his opposite gives a synonym. 

/. Let one pupil name a word, and the next a word of 
contrary meaning. 

g. Let the teacher analyze a word, as graphic, and then 
have all the pupils write as many words as possible de- 
rived from the same root. This exercise may be still 
more extended as the teacher's judgment may direct. 

24. Pupils should be trained, as they advance, to form 
definitions for themselves. 



CHAPTER VI. 
Language-Lessons and Grammar. 

Language-Lessons are such lessons in the use of 
language as are adapted to give training in the correct 
use of one's mother-tongue. They should precede any 
efforts to teach grammar as a science. Like most other 
primary teaching, they are based properly on induction, 
and the process of teaching is essentially synthetic. 

It must be remembered that the aim of language- 
lessons is not to create thought or furnish the words 
with which to express thought, but rather to teach the 
proper arrangement of language in expression. The 
proper function of lessons in English is that of training 
pupils to express themselves in accordance with the best 
usage of our language. 

Children learn language to a great extent by imitation. 
It is therefore of great importance that the teacher ex- 
press his thoughts in accordance with accepted and cor- 
rect usage. It is equally important that the children in 
their conversation, in their compositions, and in their 
class-recitations use none but correct language; and to 
this end the teacher should cultivate a spirit of generous 
criticism. 

Language-lessons are important not only because they 

12 J77 



178 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

teach the child the correct use of language, but also be- 
cause they lay the foundation for proper methods of 
teaching grammar as a science. 

The objection to the teaching of grammar — or what 
has been called Technical Grammar — in our schools 
does not hold against grammar itself, but rather against 
the method of teaching it. The difficulty lies in the fact 
that we have attempted to teach the science itself before 
the mental faculties of the children were sufficiently de- 
veloped to understand and comprehend the principles of 
the science. As a result, the work of learning consisted 
mainly in memorizing definitions and rules, without any 
corresponding ability to apply them in the construction 
of sentences. The work has been deductive, while the 
true plan of teaching primary grammar is inductive — 
first the idea, then the name, then the definition. 

Language-lessons should precede technical or scientific 
grammar. Exercise should follow exercise until the pupil 
becomes expert in the use of English and writes correctly 
as a habit. Pupils will take great delight in the construc- 
tion of sentences, and teachers will find that the pupil's 
consciousness of his power to compose will be to him 
a great delight. 

I. Principles. 

The following principles must be observed in the 
teaching of language: 

1. Language is Acquired Chiefly by Imitation. — The 
child's vocabulary is full or meagre, and its manner 
of expression correct or incorrect, according to those of 
its parents and others with whom it associates. Habits 
of speech are formed much like other habits, and they take 



LANGUAGE-LESSONS AND GRAMMAR. 179 

their coloring from those after which they are copied. If, 
therefore, the speech of the parents and the child's other 
associates be correct, and the vocabulary extensive and 
varied, we may reasonably expect the habits of the child 
to be correct. But if the surroundings of the child 
be unfavorable to language-culture, we may expect its 
speech to be defective and its language often incorrect. 

2. Language-Teaching should be Inductive. — Instead of 
beginning with the definition, elementary instruction 
should end with definitions. The true plan in teaching 
language is to teach first the idea thoroughly, then asso- 
ciate the name, and finally give the scientific definition. 
Thus, in teaching the noun, for instance, it is important 
that the pupil first grasp the idea that all objects have 
names, and that these names may all be classed under 
one division of w T ords ; the second step is to teach the 
name- word or noun; and, lastly, to give such a defini- 
tion as is clear to the mind of the child. 

3. Language is Learned most Readily by Use. — This is 
in accordance with the law of growth by exercise. The 
pupil, therefore, should not only learn the name and the 
definition, but the teacher should see that the pupil also 
has daily exercise in making an application of his 
newly-acquired knowledge. He should not only be 
required to select the words answering to the definitions 
learned, but as soon as the idea of a sentence has been 
developed he should have practical exercise in the con- 
struction of sentences. 

4. Language is the Basis of Grammar.— Grammar does 
not make language : it is simply a record of the usage 
of language as found in the speech and writings of the 
best authors. It is the office of the grammarian to for- 



180 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

mulate the laws which seem to have governed the most 
reputable writers and speakers in their use of language, 
as well as the laws on which the science of grammar 
is based. A series of language-lessons, therefore, natu- 
rally precedes technical instruction in the science of 
grammar. 

5. Teaching in Language should be Systematic. — While 
it is true that many eloquent orators have spoken and 
many eminent authors have written without possessing 
a technical knowledge of grammar, it is equally true 
that the study of language through the models of others 
was to them a life-work. Not all have the time or the 
leisure, or even the inclination, to study systematically 
and critically the model literary productions of either 
the ancient classic writers or those of our own language 
in order to develop literary ability in ourselves. It is 
necessary, therefore, that we should understand the prin- 
ciples of the science of grammar, and that we should 
have ability to apply these principles in the use of lan- 
guage. Any preliminary work, therefore, in the nature 
of language-lessons should be systematic, and be in strict 
harmony with the principles to be taught subsequently. 
Every lesson given should have an aim, and the work 
should be systematic from the beginning. 

6. Oral and Written Language should Proceed Simulta- 
neously. — Of course the child will learn to talk some 
years before it will be able to express itself on paper. 
When, however, it has once learned to write it should 
be taught to write every sentence that it expresses orally. 
Oral language-lessons without the written work are but 
partially effective in giving to the pupil correct lan- 
guage-culture. 



LANGUAGE-LESSONS AND GRAMMAR. 181 

II. Method of Teaching Language-Lessons. 

The extended plan here given may be followed in 
teaching language-lessons methodically. It is substan- 
tially that developed by the author in his work Lessons 
in English. 

Begin with a Picture. — The teacher may present a 
picture before his class, and let the pupils examine it 
for a short time. He should then talk freely and in 
an interesting way to his pupils about the picture, the 
objects represented in it, what they seem to be doing, 
etc. Having once aroused the children's interest, he 
may ask a number of questions about the picture, to 
which the pupils may write answers. 

The next step is to have the pupils write about objects 
seen in the picture. The teacher should also act as a 
guide, directing the pupils at first what to do. Thus, 
Write something about a boy ; Write something about a 
tree; Write something about a dog; and thus with regard 
to other objects represented in the picture. 

Copy Sentences. — Before the child knows what sentences 
are, let him copy sentences. See that he copies correctly, 
using at first only declarative sentences. After havino- 
copied sentences for an exercise or two, teach him that 
a sentence says something about some object. Then 
question him on the sentences copied, as to what object 
is spoken of in each sentence. 

The Capital Letter. — Having gained some notion of 
what a sentence is, call the pupil's attention to the sen- 
tence as he has written it and ask him, "With what does 
each sentence begin ?" At this point he may be taught 
the rule, " Every sentence should begin with a capital letter ;" 



182 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

and from this point on he should never be permitted to 
violate that rule, and his attention should be called to 
the rule wherever a mistake is noticed in any of his 
exercises. 

The Names of Objects. — Pupils may also be taught at 
this point that "Anything we can hear, see, touch, taste, 
smell, or think about may be called an Object." They 
should then be required to copy more sentences, and 
name the object spoken about in each. They may also 
be required to write the names of objects in columns; 
thus, the names of ten objects in the school-room, ten 
objects found on the farm, ten found in the woods, etc. 

Definition of a Sentence. — The pupil, having learned 
that a sentence says something about some object, should 
be required to write a number of sentences about objects 
named by the teacher, the latter being careful to select 
such words as school, chair, fire, trees, and others familiar 
to the pupils. It will be the proper time now also to 
teach the definition of a sentence, that it is "A thought 
expressed in words" 

Immediately following this, a number of expressions 
should be placed on the board, and the pupils be exer- 
cised in determining which are sentences, and which not, 
also giving the reason why each is or is not a sentence. 

Definition of a Noun. — The pupil may be required to 
complete a number of sentences by inserting the name 
of an object in such expressions as follow : 

swim. run. skate. 



The pupil may now be taught that the name of an 
object is called a Noun, and the simple definition may 
also be given: " A Noun is the name of anything" 



LANGUAGE-LESSONS AND GRAMMAR. 183 

Selecting Nouns. — Immediately after learning the name 
and the definition, pupils may be exercised in their read- 
ing-books or a newspaper in selecting all the nouns in a 
line or a sentence, telling why each is a noun. 

The Subject of a Sentence. — In developing the idea of 
the subject of a sentence the teacher should first require 
pupils to write a number of sentences about various ob- 
jects which they may see in a picture or which the teacher 
may name to them. They may then be taught that "In 
a sentence that about which something is said is called the 
Subject." The Subject may then be defined, " The Sub- 
ject of a sentence is that about which something is said 
or asserted" 

Exercises on selecting subjects in giving simple sen- 
tences should be required, and pupils should also be 
required to complete sentences by supplying subjects, as 
in the following expressions and many similar ones : 

run. cry. freezes. 

bite. play. sing. 

The Predicate of a Sentence. — In developing the idea 
of the Predicate the plan is much similar to that of 
teaching the subject. The pupils having written a 
number of sentences, may be told that " In a sentence 
that which is said or asserted of the subject is called the 
Predicate" The definition of the Predicate may fol- 
low : " The Predicate of a sentence is that which is said 
or asserted of the subject" 

Exercises should then follow in selecting predicates and 
subjects from given sentences, and further exercises in sup- 
plying predicates in expressions similar to the following: 

Snow . Boys — « — . Teachers . 

Robins — — — . Girls — — — . Eats . 



184 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

Diagramming. — Pupils will take great delight in dia- 
gramming or written analysis if properly taught and a 
simple system be used. The author prefers the plan he 
gives in the following exercises, because pupils write 
naturally across the page, and because it is the simplest 
possible. Let the learners, as soon as they can distin- 
guish predicate from subject, indicate their work on the 
board as follows, the upper left-hand space being used 
for the subject, and the lower space to the left of the 
perpendicular for the predicate : 



Horses 
run. 



Lambs 
bleat. 



Cats 
mew. 



Boys 
sing. 



The whole class can in this way place the entire lesson 
on the board, and they enjoy the work. 

Oral Analysis. — Oral analysis should always accom- 
pany written analysis. Written analysis is useful mainly 
on account of the interest it creates, and because, like 
written arithmetic, it is a great time-saver. The pupils, 
having placed the sentences on the board as above indi- 
cated, may take a pointer, and, pointing to the written 
sentence Horses run, may analyze as follows : 

Horses run is a sentence, because it is a thought expressed in 
words. 

Horses is the subject, because it is that about which some- 
thing is said. 

Run is the predicate, because it is that which is said of the 
subject Horses. 

Subjects and Predicates. — A number of exercises should 
be given not only in selecting subjects and predicates, 
but also in supplying either as called for. Thus, the 
teacher may name the word Boys, and require each 



LANGUAGE-LESSONS AND GRAMMAR. 185 

member of the class to name a different predicate, or 
he may give the word play, and require each member 
of the class to name a different subject from those given 
by others. 

The Declarative Sentence. — The pupil's comprehension 
of a sentence by this time will be reasonably clear, and 
he may now be taught that "Any sentence that says 
something may be called a Saying Sentence or a Declara- 
tive Sentence" His attention should be called also to the 
fact that a period follows every declarative sentence, and 
he may be required to commit to memory the rule that 
u A period should be placed after every declarative sentence" 

The Modified Subject. — The pupil should be taught 
early that the subject may consist of several words, as, 
Some boys learn ; The old horse limps ; and in order that 
they may continue the written analysis they may be 
taught to place the sentences on the board as follows, 
where the modifiers are always placed as near to the 
right of the words they modify as possible : . 

The 



boys 
learn. 



Some . 

__ horse 



limps. 



old 



They should also be required to name the entire subject, 
and to write sentences containing modified subjects, never 
forgetting the use of capital letters and the period. 

Additional exercises may be given by placing a num- 
ber of adjectives, nouns, and verbs in separate columns, 
and having the pupils select such to be used together as 
are appropriate. 

The Modified Predicate. — The pupil may be taught also 
that the predicate may consist of more than one word ; 



186 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

as, They came soon; The wind blew fiercely. These also 
should be analyzed on the board, the same principles as 
heretofore explained being observed : 



They I wind I The 

came | soon. blew | fiercely. 



Pupils should now name the entire predicate, as well 
as the entire subject. They should also write easy sen- 
tences in which both subject and predicate are modified, 
and also be required to select appropriate words to form 
sentences where such words are arranged in columns as 
adjectives, nouns, verbs, and adverbs. 

The Interrogative Sentence. — Having learned the use 
of the declarative sentence, and having learned that 
either subject or predicate may consist of a number of 
words, the pupils may be taught that " Every sentence that 
asks a question is called a Question Sentence or an Inter- 
rogative Sentence" The pupils' attention should be called 
to the fact that every interrogative sentence is followed 
by an interrogation-point. 

Declarative and Interrogative. — As soon as pupils have 
been taught to distinguish between declarative and inter- 
rogative sentences they should be required to select sen- 
tences in their Readers, telling which are interrogative 
and which declarative. 

They should also write a number of sentences at the 
teacher's dictation, beginning each with a capital letter, 
and putting a period or an interrogation-point after each 
as may be required. 

They should be required also to change declarative 
sentences to interrogative. Thus, "School w r as dis- 
missed at noon " — " Was school dismissed at noon ?" 



LANGUAGE-LESSONS AND GRAMMAR. 187 

They should also be required to change interrogative 
sentences to declarative, writing each properly. Thus, 
"Is it very pleasant to-day?" — "It is very pleasant 
to-day." 

The exercise may be varied by the teacher's partici- 
pating in the lesson, sometimes giving a question and 
sometimes an answer, while the pupils write the cor- 
responding answer or question. 

The Verb. — In teaching the Verb it is best to use only 
such verbs at first as express action. A short sentence 
may be taken, as " The bird flies" and the teacher may 
ask a question similar to the following: "What word 
shows what the bird does ?" The pupil answers, " Flies." 
The teacher may also ask, " What word shows action ?" 
He may then explain that words which express action 
are called verbs. This may be followed by the def- 
inition of a verb, though it is not the full defini- 
tion, that "A verb is a word which expresses action or 
being" 

Suggestions. — 1. The pupil should next be exercised on 
naming verbs in sentences given. 

2. He should be required to select from his reading- 
lesson such verbs as he may recognize. 

3. He may be exercised also in pointing out both verbs 
and nouns from a short poem or other selection, and be 
required to write the nouns in one column and the verbs 
in another. 

4. The child should be taught that a verb may consist 
of one word or more ; as, sing, may have sung. 

5. The child should also be exercised in practical com- 
position, by being required to take certain words that 



188 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

express action and construct sentences to be submitted 
at the next recitation. 

The Adjective. — In teaching the Adjective the teacher 
should show that sometimes a word is placed before a 
noun to tell what kind of object is meant ; as, good boys, 
little boys, bad boys. The teacher may show that the 
words good, little, and bad show the kind of boys meant. 
The teacher may then name another word, as room, and 
let the pupils select a number of appropriate words 
to place before it. These, he explains to them, are 
adjectives. 

Suggestions. — 1. It is best to use only such adjectives 
at first as denote quality. 

2. The pupils should first be required to point out the 
adjectives in a list of sentences prepared by the teacher. 

3. They should be required to write adjectives to limit 
such nouns as the teacher may name. His part of the 
exercise may be placed on the board as follows : 

— boys. men. house. 

trees. hay. birds. 



4. The teacher may assign a number of nouns, and 
have the pupils write as many adjectives as possible 
descriptive of each object named. 

5. The teacher may train his pupils to see also that 
some adjectives, as a, the, jive, etc., do not denote quality, 
but simply limit the nouns before which they are placed. 

6. After having become expert in pointing out adjec- 
tives in sentences wherever met with, the pupil may be 
required to memorize the definition. 

7. The pupil may also be taught that when a word 



LANGUAGE-LESSONS AND GRAMMAR. 189 

limits or qualifies the meaning of another, the limiting 
or qualifying word may be called a modifier. 

8. He should then be directed to write modifiers of 
subjects, instead of the blanks placed on the board by 
the teacher, as in the following : 

leaves fall, pencil was broken, 

— adding either one or more modifying words, as Autumn 
leaves fall, The new pencil was broken. 

9. The analysis of these sentences should be both oral 
and written, the written form being as follows : 



leaves 
fall. 



Autumn pencil 

was broken. 



The 

new 



The Pronoun. — In teaching the Pronoun it may be ex- 
plained to the pupil that instead of repeating the same 
noun so frequently, we may substitute another word 
meaning the same thing. Thus, instead of using the 
name Henry in the following, and saying, " Henry found 
Henry's knife," ask the pupil to use a word in place of 
Henry as if it were his own name, and he will say, " I 
found my knife," or in speaking to another, "You found 
your knife," or in speaking of another, " He found his 
knife." 

Suggestions. — 1. Give the pupils a number of sentences 
in which the same noun is so frequently repeated as to 
2>roduce an unpleasantness of sound, as, "John gave 
John's box to John's teacher," etc., and let the pupil 
substitute pronouns instead. 

2. Let the pupil point out the pronouns in given 
sentences, and name the word, wherever possible, for 
which the pronoun is a substitute. 

3. Let the pupil write pronouns in such sentences, 



190 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

containing blanks, as the teacher may give, as in the fol- 
lowing : 

Both Henry and sister are pleased with books. 

4. Teach here that the pronoun I is always a capital 
letter. 

The Adverb. — In teaching the Adverb it is best to con- 
fine the first lessons to the teaching of such words as 
answer the questions How? When? or Where? 

It may be shown to the pupil that often a verb is 
modified by a word which answers one of these ques- 
tions; as, 

The bird flies rapidly. (How ?) 

The bird flies upward. (Where ?) 
The bird flies now. (When?) 

The pupils may be taught that all words that tell how, 
when, or where something is done are called adverbs. 

Suggestions. — 1. Let the teacher give the pupils short 
sentences in which the verb may be limited by a number 
of adverbs. It may be placed on the board as follows, 
the pupil writing the adverbs : 



The bird flies 



now. 
rapidly, 
away, 
upward, 
well. 
^ gracefully. 



2. These sentences may then be diagrammed or 
analyzed in writing, as follows : 



bird 
flies 



The bird 

now. flies 



ird I The 
ies I away. 



3. In a similar manner the pupil may be taught that 



LANGUAGE-LESSONS AND GRAMMAR. 191 

sometimes an adverb itself is modified, as in the sentence, 
" The horse runs very rapidly." 

4. Let the pupil indicate the modifying power of the 
word very by writing the sentence as follows, placing the 
modifier to the right of the word which it modifies : 



horse 



The 



runs rapidly. | very 

5. The pupils may now be taught that words which 
are used to modify adverbs are also called adverbs. 

6. Show the child that an adjective may also be 
modified, as very tall, extremely cold, etc. 

7. Let a number of sentences be given from which 
the pupil may select not only the adjectives, but also the 
words which modify these adjectives. 

8. The pupils should have exercise also in inserting ad- 
verbial modifiers of adverbs and adjectives in given sen- 
tences. These sentences should then be analyzed, both 
orally and by the written plan. The written form may 

stand as follows : 

A 



man 



innocent | perfectly 
suffered greatly. | very 

9. At this stage the general definition of an adverb 
may be given* as follows : An Adverb is a word used to 
modify the meaning of a verb, an adjective, or an adverb. 

10. Columns may now be arranged, the first contain- 
ing nouns and pronouns ; the second, verbs ; the third, 
adjectives; and the fourth, adverbs. From these the 
pupils should be directed to select words and construct 
sentences. 

11. The correct use of a before consonant-sounds, and 
an before vowel-sounds, as also the proper use of those 



192 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

instead of them when placed before nouns, may be 
taught at this time. 

The Preposition.— The Preposition may be taught 
readily by the teacher's taking two objects — as, for in- 
stance, a pencil and a booh — and placing them in differ- 
ent positions, then leading the pupils to name the words 
which show relation. 

Thus, " The pencil lies on the book ; " " The pencil 
lies in the book ; " " The pencil lies under the book." 
Let the pupil in each case show what w T ord expresses 
the relation between lies and booh. 

The pupil may be taught that all wurds that show the 
relation between a noun or a pronoun and some preceding 
word is a preposition. 

Following this, he may be taught the definition of a 
preposition. 

He may also be taught that the preposition with the 
noun following it modifies some preceding word; as, 
drops of rain, flashes of lightning. 

Suggestions. — 1. Let the pupils be required to point 
out prepositions in given sentences. 

2. Let the pupils show what each phrase, consisting 
of the preposition and its object, modifies. 

3. Let sentences be written in which the preposition is 
omitted for the pupil to supply. 

4. Let nouns or verbs be given as below, to which the 
pupils may add proper modifying phrases : 



Days 



of sunlight. f over the house, 

of pleasure. into the window. 

of peace. flies -l from the tree. 

of plenty. in the air. 

of misery. [ along the stream. 



LANGUAGE-LESSONS AND GRAMMAR. 193 

5. Let the pupil substitute phrases for adjective mod- 
ifiers in a number of sentences; as, marble steps = steps of 
marble, 

6. Let the pupils be exercised in changing phrases to 
single words ; as, men of wisdom = wise men. 

7. In written analysis let the preposition and its object 
be written together, as in the following sentence: "The 
moon looks dow 7 n on many beautiful scenes/ 

The 



}) 



moon 



looks 



down 

I many 
beautiful 



8. Let the pupils be required to construct sentences 
containing in, into, at, on, between, among, and other 
prepositions. 

9. Give careful drill on the correct distinction between 
in and into, between and among, to and at. 

The Conjunction. — The Conjunction may readily be 
taught by writing a number of expressions on the 
board, as " Rats and mice gnaw," and leading the pupil 
to distinguish what word joins other words. It may be 
taught also by practical exercises, wherein the pupil is 
directed to combine expressions, as in the two sentences, 
" John can sing " and " Henry can sing," equivalent 
to "John and Henry can sing." 

The pupils will readily learn that conjunctions join 
or connect, and they may then be taught the formal 
definition, and the teacher may show that phrases or 
sentences, as well as single words, are connected by 
conjunctions. 

Suggestions, — 1. Let pupils be required to point out 

13 



194 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

conjunctions in sentences where they connect words, and 
show what words are connected. 

2. Let them select conjunctions connecting phrases or 
clauses. 

3. Let the pupils supply omitted conjunctions in sen- 
tences written by the teacher. 

4. Have them combine sentences so as to use conjunc- 
tions, instead of repeating the parts of sentences; as, "I 
can read and write," for "I can read" and "I can write." 

5. Teach here the use of the comma to indicate the 
omission of the conjunction when a series of words, the 
same part of speech, follow one another. 

6. Teach that when the conjunction connects two sub- 
jects, the two subjects become one, and that this is called 
a compound subject, as " John and James recite." 

7. Teach also that when the conjunction connects two 
or more predicates, these predicates become one, and that 
this is called a compound predicate; as, " Girls read, write, 
and playP 

The Interjection. — In teaching the Interjection children 
may be led to repeat a few sentences showing emotion, and 
then be required to name the word in each sentence show- 
ing joy, sadness, etc., as in the following : " Hurrah for 
the ice-pond !" "Alas! my poor kitten is dead !" 

The next step is to teach that these words, which show 
that we are glad, joyful, sad, etc., are interjections, and 
then the pupil may be taught the formal definition. 

The pupil should be taught here that whenever an 
exclamation is made, as, " Oh dear !" " How cold it is !" 
" Pshaw !" etc., whether it consists of a single word or 
more, it is followed by the exclamation-point (!). 



LANGUAGE-LESSORS AND GRAMMAR. 195 

He may also be taught that when such an exclamation 
is a full sentence it is called an exclamatory sentence. 

He may also be taught now that when a command or 
an entreaty is made the sentence expressing it is called an 
imperative sentence. 

Suggestions. — 1. Let the pupil point out interjections 
wherever found in given sentences. 

2. Let the pupil punctuate by placing the exclamation- 
point at the proper place in such sentences as the teacher 
may give. 

3. Let the pupil be exercised in determining between 
exclamatory and imperative sentences, placing a period 
after the imperative sentence whenever found. 

4. Let the pupil have exercise in writing the various 
kinds of sentences, declarative, interrogative, exclama- 
tory, and imperative, punctuating each correctly. 

5. Teach that the word O is always written as a 
capital letter. 

6. The written analysis of sentences containing con- 
junctions and interjections, which never modify other 
words, and are never modified, may be indicated as 
follows, where clotted lines are placed under the con- 
junctions and the interjections : 



fireman 



attended 



The Hark! 

COOl -^^^ you 

and ^^ ~~ 

courageous ' do hear 



I of "thunder? | the 



to duty. | his 

7. Write sentences without any punctuation-marks or 
capital letters, and require the pupils to put them in 
proper form. 

8. Give a full and thorough review of all the parts 



196 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

of speech, with the rules for punctuation and capital 
letters, as far as taught. 

Subdivisions of Parts of Speech. 

It will be noticed that in all the previous lessons we 
have dealt with the parts of speech and such incidental 
instruction only as the child could fully comprehend and 
apply in the construction of sentences. The number of 
definitions has been very small, though the course indi- 
cated would cover three or four months' work. 

The second general step in teaching a course of lan- 
guage-lessons should include the chief subdivisions of 
the parts of speech, together with such incidental in- 
struction as will make the subject both interesting and 
practical. 

The aim in a series of language-lessons should be not 
simply to teach the pupil to imitate models or the lan- 
guage of others, but to acquaint him with the prin- 
ciples which he employs in the construction of sen- 
tences and the use of correct speech as rapidly as he 
may be able to comprehend them. Any system of 
language-lessons that does not aim to give the pupil 
such culture and instruction as will make the subse- 
quent study of grammar easier for him is radically 
defective. 

Classes of Nouns. — The chief subdivisions of Nouns to 
be taught are the classes Proper and Common. Pupils 
may be taught that many objects have two names, as 
" The Delaware is a river," and that one of these is a 
common name which, like the word river above, may be 
given to all objects of that class. 



LANGUAGE-LESSONS AND GRAMMAR. 197 

Their attention may be called to the fact that one of 
these names is such as is applied to that particular object 
only, as the word Delaware above. We have, therefore, 
two classes of nouns. The name which belongs to all of 
a kind, or is common to all of a kind, is called a Com- 
mon Noun, and that which belongs to a particular object 
only, as the word Delaware, is called a Proper Noun. 

Following this, the definition of the common noun and 
that of the proper noun should be taught. 

The following rules for capital letters should now be 
taught also: 

1. That every proper noun should begin with a capital 
letter. 

2. That when a proper noun consists of two or more 
words, as William Henry Johnson, each should begin 
with a capital letter. 

Suggestions. — 1. Let the pupil select from the reading- 
book or from selected sentences given by the teacher both 
the proper and the common nouns. 

2. Let the pupils write proper nouns omitted from a 
number of skeleton sentences given by the teacher. 

3. Give the pupils exercises in writing the proper 
names of objects. Thus, 

Five proper names of boys ; 
Five proper names of girls ; 
Five proper names of cities ; 
Five proper names of rivers, 

See that the proper rules for the use of capital letters 
are applied. 

Abbreviations. — At this point pupils may be taught the 



198 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

rules with reference to abbreviations. They may be 
taught that instead of writing William Henry Adams 
we may write W. H. Adams, and that words thus 
shortened are called "abbreviations." 

Teach here that every abbreviation should be followed 
by a period. 

Caution them not to use Mr. and Esq. with the same 
name at the same time. 

Teach also that abbreviations of proper names, when 
single letters, are always capitals. 

Teach that the names of the months, the days of the 
week, and important events, but not the seasons, all 
begin with capital letters. 

Teach the abbreviation of the names of the months 
and the days of the week; also such abbreviations as 
A. D., A. M., B. C, 3L, M. D., P. 3L, P. 0., R. P., 
U. S., etc. 

Suggestions. — 1. Let pupils abbreviate such names as 
they are familiar with ; as, George Washington Adams, 
Henry Clay Peters, etc. 

2. Let them write their ow 7 n names and the names of 
their associates properly abbreviated. 

3. Teach them to write the abbreviations of their 
own county and State and the different States of the 
Union ; also the different counties of their own State. 

4. Teach that abbreviations often consist of more than 
one letter; as, Dr. for Doctor, Capt. for Captain, Or. for 
Credit, etc. 

5. Give them a list of thirty or more of the most 
common abbreviations, placing them on the blackboard, 
and having the pupils copy them in manuscript books 
for future reference. 



LANGUAGE-LESSONS AND GRAMMAR. 199 

6. Give them frequent exercises in abbreviating and 
punctuating properly the titles, etc. which you have 
taught to them. 

7. Give your pupils frequent exercises in writing the 
days of the week ; the months of the' year, and important 
events. 

Classes of Verbs. — The two chief classes of Verbs to 
be taught are the Transitive and the Intransitive. It is 
necessary to teach the distinction between the two, be- 
cause the transitive verb is the onlv one which is 
followed by an objective modifier. 

The Transitive Verb. — In teaching the transitive verb 
a sentence like the following, " Cats can catch mice," 
may be taken. The pupil points out the verb, and he 
is led to see that the verb is followed by a noun ; also 
that if the noun be removed the sentence will not 
make sense. He may then be taught that a verb which 
does not make sense without placing a noun or a pro- 
noun after it, or which represents an action as passing 
from one object to another, is a Transitive Verb. 

He may be taught also that when a verb makes sense 
without an object, as in the sentence, " Ice melts," or 
when no action is represented as passing from one object 
to another, the verb is Intransitive. 

Suggestions. — 1. Let the verbs in certain sentences be 
omitted, and require the pupils to insert transitive verbs. 

2. In a similar way let the pupil be required to insert 
intransitive verbs. 

3. Have pupils select the verbs in given sentences and 
tell whether they are transitive or intransitive, and why. 

4. Have easy sentences containing transitive verbs 



200 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

analyzed orally and in writing. Let the written form 

be as follows : 

The 



boy 
drank 



thirsty 
water. | some 

5. Teach that the modifiers of intransitive verbs are 
adverbial, and that the modifiers of transitive verbs are 
either adverbial or objective. 

6. .Let the pupils be required to write a number of 
objective modifiers in given sentences. 

7. Let the pupils be required to write adverbial 
modifiers where omitted in given sentences. 

Classes of Adjectives. — The two chief classes of Ad- 
jectives to be taught in connection with language-lessons 
are the Qualifying and the Limiting. 

The learner may be taught that any adjective that 
names a quality, as good, bad, wise, old, etc., is called 
a Qualifying Adjective ; also, that when an adjective does 
not name a quality it is called a Limiting Adjective. He 
may be taught that to this class belong numeral adjec- 
tives, articles, and pronominal adjectives, each of which 
the teacher should carefully explain. 

Suggestions. — 1. Let the pupil select qualifying adjec- 
tives from given sentences. 

2. Let the pupil select limiting adjectives from given 
sentences. 

3. Let the pupil select adjectives and tell whether they 
are limiting or qualifying, and why. 

4. Let the pupil be required to write appropriate 
adjectives before given words, and tell whether they 
are limiting or qualifying. 



LANGUAGE-LESSONS AND GRAMMAR. 201 

5. After having taught that J/ih, 7th, Sd, etc. are not 
properly abbreviations, and that they should not be fol- 
lowed by periods, give the pupils exercises in writing 
similar expressions; as, June 17th, 1864. 

6. Teach the use of this and that in the singular, 
with their corresponding plurals these and those, giving 
sentences for correction, and asking for original sentences 
in which the words are correctly used. 

7. Teach the correct use of either and neither in speak- 
ing of two, and of any and none in speaking of more than 
tw r o. Give the pupil practice in the correction of sen- 
tences containing these words used improperly. Also, 
require original sentences in which the words are prop- 
erly used. 

8. Teach that any adjective made from a proper noun 
is a proper adjective, and that it should begin with a cap- 
ital letter. 

9. Have pupils construct proper adjectives from given 
proper nouns ; as, America, France, etc. 

10. Have pupils w 7 rite the nouns from which given 
proper adjectives, as Grecian, Chinese, Mosaic, etc., are 
constructed. 

11. Have pupils write adjectives derived from given 
names ; as, fear, fearful, fearless. 

12. Let pupils name the nouns from which certain 
adjectives are formed ; as, heroic, hero. 

13. Let the pupils give definitions of qualifying, lim- 
iting, numeral, pronominal, and proper adjectives. 

Classes of Pronouns, — The chief Pronouns to be taught 
at this stage are the Personal, the Relative, and the Inter- 
rogative. 



202 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

Pupils may be taught that such pronouns as show by 
their form whether the person which they represent is the 
person speaking, the person spoken to, or the person or 
the thing spoken of, are called Personal Pronouns. 

They may be taught at this point that all names applied 
to the Deity, as God, Lord, Almighty, etc., as well as the 
personal pronouns which represent them (when empha- 
sized), begin with capital letters. 

In teaching the Relative Pronoun the pupil may be 
required to copy four declarative sentences in which the 
words who, which, what, and that are correctly used. 

By means of these sentences the pupils may be taught 
also that who is used in speaking of persons, which in 
speaking of animals and things without life, what in 
speaking of things, and that in speaking of persons, 
animals, or things. 

Suggestions. — 1. Let the pupils be required to select 
personal pronouns from given sentences. 

2. After having taught that the relative pronouns are 
who, which, what, and that, let pupils name the relatives 
in given sentences. 

3. Give sentences in which the relative pronoun is 
omitted, and have the pupil supply the omission. 

4. Have the pupil write a number of sentences, five 
or more, in which the relative pronoun who is used cor- 
rectly ; also, a number in which each of the other relative 
pronouns is correctly used. 

5. Let the pupils be exercised in the correction of 
sentences in which the relatives are improperly used. 
Select as many of these sentences as possible from the 
conversation of the pupils themselves. This will make 
them both careful and critical in the use of language. 



LANGUAGE-LESSONS AND GRAMMAR. 203 

In teaching the Interrogative Pronoun show that there 
are but three, and that they are used only to ask questions. 

Call the pupil's attention to the punctuation-mark at 
the close of every sentence beginning with an interroga- 
tive pronoun. 

Suggestions. — 1. Have the pupils select the interrogative 
pronouns from given sentences. 

2. Let them supply omissions in interrogative sentences 
with the proper pronouns. 

General Exercises. — 1. Let pupils be required to select 
any pronouns they may find in sentences, and tell whether 
they are personal, relative, or interrogative. 

2. Let pupils be required to supply omitted pronouns 
in given sentences, and tell the class to which the word 
supplied belongs. 

3. Let pupils be exercised in constructing sentences 
incorporating a certain pronoun, as who or which, and 
show w 7 here it is used as an interrogative and where 
as a relative, and why. 

4. Let the pupils commit the definitions of the classes 
of pronouns, explain them, and illustrate them with orig- 
inal sentences. 

Classes of Adverbs. — In teaching the classes of Adverbs 
the pupils may first be led to see that certain adverbs an- 
swer the question When? others the question Where ? 
etc. They may then be taught that those which answer 
the question When ? are called adverbs of Time ; those 
which answer the question Where? adverbs of Place; 
those which answer the question How much? adverbs 
of Degree ; those which answer the question Why ? 



204 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

adverbs of Cause; and those which answer the ques- 
tion Howf adverbs of Manner. 

The pupils should then be required to select adverbs 
from given sentences, and name the class to which each 
belongs. 

The pupil may be taught at this point also that some 
adverbs not only modify other words, but also connect 
clauses, and that such adverbs are called Conjunctive 
Adverbs. 

Suggestions. — 1. Let pupils be required to incorporate 
certain given adverbs in sentences of their own con- 
struction. 

2. Let pupils be required to write an adverb of any 
class as called for by the teacher. 

3. Have pupils select the conjunctive adverbs in given 
sentences, and show what they modify ajid what they 
connect. 

4. Have the pupils write subordinate clauses to modify 
given clauses with which they are connected by conjunc- 
tive adverbs. 

5. Have the pupils form adverbs from given adjectives. 

6. Let pupils rewrite given sentences, so that the 
idea expressed by an adjective may be expressed by 
an adverb instead; as, "He is a slow speaker " = " He 
speaks slowly." 

7. Let pupils rewrite sentences in such a way that the 
idea expressed by an adverb may be expressed by an ad- 
jective instead; as, "John walks gracefully" = 6S John is 
a graceful walker." 

8. The conjunctive adverb in written analysis may be 
indicated by parentheses, as in the following sentence: 
u We shall go when the train arrives." 



LANGUAGE-LESSONS AND GRAMMAR. 205 



We 



shall go 



^ train I the 
(when) < 

^-arrives. 



in I th 
ives. I 



bird 
flew 



9. Pupils may be taught at this point that sometimes 
a phrase consisting of a preposition and its object is used 
instead of an adverb. 

Let the pupil select or write such phrases as indicate 
time, place, degree, cause, manner. 

In writing the analysis let the preposition and its ob- 
ject be placed together, as follows : " The bird flew rap- 
idly over the river." 

The 
rapidly 
. over river. | the 

10. Teach that independent adverbs are such as have 
the form of adverbs, but do not modify any other word, 
as the words well and yes in the following sentences : 

1. Well, this is strange. 

2. Yes, I shall hear from him. 

Let the pupils name independent adverbs in given 
sentences : also, have them construct original sentences 
containing independent adverbs. 

Classes of Conjunctions. — The two classes of conjunc- 
tions to be taught are Co-ordinate and Subordinate. 
Their difference is best shown by the use of sentences ; 
as, 

1. I will come, and you may return. 

2. I will come if you return. 

In the first sentence the pupils may be taught that the 



206 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

two statements connected by and are independent of each 
other, and that either may be used without the other. In 
the second sentence they may be taught that one statement 
depends upon the other. 

They may also be taught that statements independent 
of each other are connected by co-ordinate conjunctions, 
while dependent or modifying clauses are connected by 
subordinate conjunctions. 

Suggestions. — 1. Let the pupils say whether the state- 
ments connected by conjunctions in given sentences are 
dependent or independent. 

2. Have them point out conjunctions and state whether 
they are co-ordinate or subordinate. 

3. Have them supply omitted conjunctions in given 
sentences, and tell the class. 

4. Let them write a number of sentences containing 
co-ordinate conjunctions. 

5. Let them write a number of sentences containing 
subordinate conjunctions. 

6. Teach that certain conjunctions are used in pairs, 
and that these are called correlative conjunctions. 

Show a few of the most important correlatives, as, 
neither . . . nor, either . . . or, both . . . and, if . . . then, 
whether . . . or. 

7. Teach the caution with regard to the use of either 
with or, and neither with nor. 

Let the pupils correct sentences in which these cor- 
relatives are incorrectly used. 

General Exercises. 

1. Review by defining all parts of speech. 

2. Review by defining the classes of parts of speech. 



LANGUAGE-LESSONS AND GRAMMAR. 207 

3. Exercise pupils in selections of both prose and 
poetry, and have them name not only the part of speech, 
but also the subdivision or class. 

4. Review all the rules learned for the use of capital 
letters. 

5. Review the punctuation-marks as far as learned. 

6. Apply the foregoing rules in practical exercises. 

Modifications of the Parts of Speech. 

Having taught the parts of speech and the chief classes 
into which they are divided, together with the practical 
use of English, the third step in connection with the 
teaching of language-lessons is that of familiarizing the 
learner with the modifications of the parts of speech, 
and the use of such principles in practice as the children 
may be able to comprehend. 

Modifications of Nouns and Pronouns. — In connection 
with nouns and pronouns it is necessary to teach Number, 
Person, Gender, and Case. 

Number. — In teaching Number the chief point is to lead 
the child to distinguish between the forms of words which 
indicate one or more than one. This is best done by show- 
ing that when we say boy we mean one boy, but that when 
we say boys we mean more than one. The child readily 
sees that the only change in the word in order to make it 
signify more than one is the addition of the s. 

Suggestion. — Let the pupil now be exercised on a 
number of words and tell whether one is meant or more 
than one in each case. 

Explain the meaning and use of the words singular 
and plural 



208 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

Show how words form their plural regularly ; show 
also how the plural of words ending in s, x, z, ch, sh is 
formed. 

Suggestions. — 1. Let the pupils tell whether given 
words are singular or plural. 

2. Have them write the plurals of given singular 
forms. 

3. Have them write the singular of given plural 
forms. 

Teach the methods of forming plurals of nouns end- 
ing in y; also o; also/ or fe. Teach also the most 
important irregular plurals ; as, oxen, men, etc. 

Suggestions. — 1. Have pupils write the plurals of 
given singular forms, both regular and irregular. 

2. Have them write also the singular of given plural 
forms, both regular and irregular. 

Teach that in compound nouns the word which names 
the object is made plural, as blackboards, goose-quills. 

Suggestion. — Let pupils write the plurals of given 
singular compound forms. 

Person. — In teaching Person show that nouns or pro- 
nouns may denote the person speaking, the person spoken 
to, or the person or the thing sjjoken of. To teach that 
a noun representing the speaker is in the first person, 
that one representing the person spoken to is in the 
second person, etc., is a matter of but little difficulty. 

Suggestions. — 1. Let the pupil be required to select 
nouns and pronouns from given sentences, and name the 
person of each. 

2. Let the pupils be required to write a certain num- 
ber of original sentences in which the nouns and the 



LANGUAGE-LESSONS AND GRAMMAR. 209 

pronouns are used correctly according to such person 
as the teacher may direct or require. 

Gender. — Pupils may be taught readily that animals 
are divided into male and female; we thus have two 
sexes. They may also be taught that we have two 
words, masculine which denotes the names pf males, 
and feminine which denotes the names of females. 

Their attention may then be directed to the fact that 
some objects are neither male nor female, and therefore 
have no sex. Nouns which indicate the names of these 
objects, as booh, chair, etc., we therefore say are in the 
neuter gender. In a similar manner, the child may be 
led to apply the term common gender to such nouns as 
represent objects whose sex cannot be determined by the 
form of the word, such as neighbor, parent, or friend. 

Suggestions. — 1. Pupils should first be required to 
name the gender of a large number of nouns the 
names of familiar objects. 

2. They should be required to give the feminine form 
for a number of given nouns in the masculine. 

3. They should be required to give the masculine form 
for a number of given nouns in the feminine. 

4. They should be required to write sentences con- 
taining a noun of any required gender, or each sen- 
tence containing several nouns of different genders. 

These exercises should be continued until there is no 
possible danger of the pupils' mistaking any one gender 
for another. 

Case. — Case is one of the most difficult parts of gram- 
mar to teach to the beginner. Much ingenuity is required 

14 



210 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

to present the subject in such a way as will permit the 
pupil to grasp it readily. 

It may be explained to pupils that the relation which 
a nouxi or a pronoun bears to other w r ords is called Case. 
Thus, when it is used as the subject of a sentence it is 
said to be in the Nominative Case; when it denotes 
ownership or possession, in the Possessive Case; and 
when it is used after a preposition or a transitive verb 
to answer the question Whom? or What? it is said to 
be in the Objective Case. 

Having learned so much, the pupil may be taught not 
only the definition of case, but also of each of the several 
cases. 

So far as language-lessons are concerned, the important 
thing to be learned is the use of the possessive case, and 
how to write it. 

The pupil may be taught that when a noun denotes 
possession, something is added to the usual form. Thus, 
we may ask, " Whose box is this ?" The answer will be 
not, " The boy box," but " The boy's box." The child 
distinguishes readily by the sound that something has 
been added to the word boy to make it boy's. 

The next point is to show the pupil that the possessive 
form of most nouns in the singular is written by adding 
an apostrophe and the letter s ('s) to the nominative 
form. 

The teacher should then place a number of possessive 
forms on the board as the pupils dictate. 

A second exercise may consist of practice-work for the 
pupils, in which a number of words are dictated to them, 
and of which they are required to write the possessive 
form. 



LANGUAGE-LESSONS AND GRAMMAR. 211 

They may next be taught that where the nominative 
form ends in s, as in most plurals, the apostrophe alone 
is added. 

They may be taught also that where the plural does 
not end in s, the apostrophe and the s are both added. 

Suggestions. — 1. The teacher should illustrate fully on 
the blackboard. 

2. The teacher should write plurals on the blackboard, 
he selecting the nouns, and the pupils dictating as to the 
proper method of writing the possessive form. 

3. Pupils may be required to prepare at their seats 
and write on the board during recitation a number of 
possessive forms of words dictated by the teacher at a 
preceding lesson-period. 

4. Pupils should be required to write both the singular 
and the plural possessive forms of given nouns. 

5. Let them be required also to change singular pos- 
sessive forms to plural possessives, and plural possessives 
to singular possessives. 

6. Review Case by requiring pupils to select nouns 
from any given paragraph or stanza and name the case 
of each. 

Some of the more simple cautions relative to the use of 
the possessive form may also be taught at this stage, as — 

1. In writing the possessive of nouns always add the 
possessive sign to the nominative form. 

2. When several possessives limit the same noun or 
show joint ownership add the possessive sign to the last 
possessive only. 

3. AVhen several possessives denote separate owner- 
ship add the possessive sign to each. 

These cautions should of course be illustrated and 



212 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

explained by the teacher, after which the pupils should 
have frequent exercises in writing the forms correctly 
and in correcting such improper forms as may be pre- 
sented to their notice. 

The possessive, being an adjective element, is written 
to the right of the noun which it modifies, as follows : 

Mary's 

little 



rabbits 



are 



in garden. I the 



Case of Pronouns. — In Pronouns the teacher should 
show that each case has its own form, as, he, his, him, 
and after the pupils have become somewhat familiar 
with these forms he should give them plentiful exer- 
cise in requiring them to write each form as it may be 
called for. 

It would be w T ell also to teach the following cautions, 
giving the pupils constant practice both in writing cor- 
rect sentences and in having them correct any incorrect 
expressions with w r hich they may meet. It is only by 
this constant practice in writing and criticism that they 
finally become critical in their use of language and learn 
to write with ease : 

Cautions, — 1. Do not use the apostrophe in writing the 
possessive case of pronouns. 

2. Do not use the objective form for the subject or the 
attribute of a sentence. 

3. Do not use who in the objective case. 

4. In the singular number use the second person before 
the third, and the third before the first. 

5. Do not use a pronoun and its antecedent as the 
subject of the same sentence. 



LANGUAGE-LESSONS AND GRAMMAR. 213 

Other important cautions may be added, the teacher 
being careful that they are such as the pupil can compre- 
hend, and explaining and illustrating them in such a way 
as will enable the pupil to understand them. 

These exercises should be followed by such as require 
the pupil to select pronouns in given sentences, and name 
the person, number, gender, and case of each. 

Comparison of Adjectives. — In connection with Adjec- 
tives it is necessary to teach Comparison, the chief object 
of which is to teach pupils how to w 7 rite the different forms 
by which they express the various degrees of quality. 

It is best to begin with such sentences and forms as 
the pupils, from their own use of languge, know to be 
correct. Thus, the teacher mav write on the board three 
sentences in which the words large, small, good, or any 
other familiar adjective, is properly used, to show the 
different degrees of quality. 

He should then, by properly-directed questions, lead 
them to name the three degrees represented by other 
familiar adjectives. 

He may also show how the comparative and the super- 
lative degree are usually formed, both in monosyllables 
and in polysyllables. 

Suggestions. — 1. Let the pupils form the comparative 
of such familiar adjectives as may be dictated by the 
teacher. 

2. Let the pupils be required to form the superlative 
of such adjectives as may be dictated by the teacher. 

3. Let the pupils be required to write both the com- 
parative and the superlative form of given adjectives. 

4. Let the pupils select adjectives from given para- 



214 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

graphs, and name the degree of comparison expressed 
by each. 

In this connection the teacher should teach the follow- 
ing cautions, and give plentiful exercises, as urged here- 
tofore : 

Cautions. — 1. Use the comparative degree when two 
objects are compared. 

2. Use the superlative degree when more than two 
objects are compared. 

3. Do not use two signs of the comparative or the 
superlative. 

4. Do not use the word here after this or that 

5. When a numeral adjective means more than one, 
always put a plural noun after it. 

6. Do not use them for those in limiting a noun. 

7. Do not use adverbs for adjectives. 

Of course but a single caution should be taught at a 
time, and the teacher should be careful to see that pupils 
both understand the cautions and apply them properly. 

Properties of Verbs. — Since transitive verbs may rep- 
resent the subject of the sentence either as acting or as 
being acted upon, they have the property known as 
Voice. In order to show the difference between the 
active and the passive voice a sentence like the follow- 
ing, "The man shot a bird," may be taken. In this 
sentence the subject man is represented as acting. We 
may express the same idea by making bird the subject 
of the sentence; thus, "A bird was shot by the man." 
In this sentence the subject bird is represented as being 
acted upon or as receiving the action. 

The child may then be taught that where the subject 



LANGUAGE-LESSONS AND GRAMMAR. 215 

is represented as acting the verb is said to be in the Active 
Voice, and that where the subject is represented as receiv- 
ing the action the verb is said to be in the Passive Voice. 

Suggestions. — 1. The pupil should be required to 
transpose a number of sentences so as to change the 
active to the passive voice; also, a number so as to 
change the passive voice to the active. 

2. Let pupils be required to select transitive verbs in 
sentences, name the voice, whether active or passive, and 
then rewrite the sentences so as to change the voice. 

Mode.— In teaching Mode pupils may be taught that 
there are several ways or modes in which an assertion 
may be made. 

Thus, we may say, " Mary sings/' in which we simply 
indicate a fact or express an assertion. 

We may also say, u Mary can sing," in which we 
assert her power to sing. 

We may also say, " Mary, sing/' in which we express 
a command or an invitation. 

Or we may say, " If Mary sing we shall be pleased," 
in which case we imply a doubt or a contingency. 

We may also use the verb without any subject, as, 
" To sing is pleasant." 

These five different manners of expressing thought 
are called Modes. 

The pupil should now be taught the names of these 
modes, and as rapidly as each is taught the pupils should 
have exercise not only in selecting verbs of the mode 
taught, but also in changing the sentences from one form 
to another, so as to indicate the difference and show that 
they understand. Thus, if the pupil have learned the 



216 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

indicative and the potential, let him be required to 
change the sentence from the indicative to the potential, 
and from the potential to the indicative. 

In a similar way, let him be required to change from 
the imperative to the subjunctive or the potential, or 
from any one mode to any or all of the others. This 
practice will acquaint him with the different modes of 
expression much more readily than all the conjugations 
he could ever be taught. 

Tense. — In teaching Tense the teacher should show by 
a simple sentence or expression that an action may have 
taken place in the past, that it may take place at the 
present time, or that it may take place in the future. He 
may also teach that the property of the verb w T hich 
shows when an action or event occurs is called Tense. 

Suggestion. — The only exercise necessary here is to 
have pupils distinguish, when a sentence is read to them, 
as to whether the action represented is past, present, or 
future. 

The second step is to show that as we have three kinds 
of time, past, present, andfutiwe; and as an action may 
be represented as going on or as completed at any of these 
times, we have twice three, or six, tenses, two in each 
division of time. After having been taught the tenses 
and their names, particularly those of the indicative 
mode, it will be found an excellent exercise to have the 
pupils construct sentences representing the different 
tenses, somewhat as follows : 

I teach — , Present, going on. 

I have taught , Present Perfect, completed. 

I taught , Past, going on. 



LANGUAGE-LESSONS AND GRAMMAR. 217 

I had taught , Past Perfect, completed. 

I shall teach z-, Future, going on. 

I shall have taught , Future Perfect, completed. 

Suggestions. — 1. Pupils should also be required to 
change from one tense to another. It is a surprising 
fact that few persons, even at present, use the past per- 
fect tense of the indicative correctly. 

2. The tenses in the other modes need not be taught 
at this time. Indeed, even those in the indicative may 
be omitted until the pupil takes up the more advanced 
part of grammar, when he will be enabled to study the 
subject of tense more intelligently. 

* 

Number of Verbs. — Pupils should be taught that the 
verb changes its form according to the Number of the 
subject of the sentence. This may readily be illustrated 
to them by the use of sentences like, " The man sings," 
" The men sing." Pupils will at once detect the change 
in form. 

Pupils may be taught the following cautions at this 
stage of advancement : 

Cautions. — 1. When a verb has two or more subjects 
referring to different things and connected by and, it 
should have the plural form. 

2. When a verb has two or more subjects in the sin- 
gular connected by and, but referring to the same person 
or thing, it should have the singular form. 

3. When two or more singular subjects are preceded 
by each, every, or no, the verb must be in the singular 
number. 

4. Use the present tense to express anything that is 
alwavs true or untrue. 



218 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

5. Use shall in the first person to foretell or express 
what will take place. 

6. Use will in the first person to express a promise or 
a resolution. 

The cautions with regard to subjects connected by or 
or nor, and those with reference to subjects when col- 
lective nouns, may also be taught at this stage. 

Suggestions. — 1. Give the pupils exercises in changing 
sentences from the singular to the plural form. Require 
them also to write original sentences incorporating given 
verbs, and name the number of each. 

2. Give plentiful exercises in the correction of errors. 

Person. — In teaching the Person of verbs it is neces- 
sary to teach only that the first person singular of the 
verb always has the same form as the plural. 

Participles. — In teaching Participles, which are only 
forms of the verb, it may be shown that there are words 
which partake partly of the nature of verbs and partly 
of the nature of adjectives ; thus, in the sentence, " The 
boy running down the hill is my brother," the word 
running shows action, and therefore has the nature of a 
verb ; it also limits the noun boy, showing which boy is 
meant, and therefore partakes of the nature of an ad- 
jective. Pupils may be taught that all such words are 
called participles. 

They should be taught here also that when the parti- 
ciple is placed before the noun which it limits it becomes 
a participial adjective, as in the sentence, " The running 
brook flows to the river." 

Suggestions. — 1. Let pupils be required to select 



LANGUAGE-LESSONS AND GRAMMAR. 219 

participles from given sentences, also participial ad- 
jectives. 

2. Let them rewrite sentences, changing participles to 
participial adjectives and participial adjectives to parti- 
ciples. 

3. Let pupils compose sentences containing either par- 
ticiples or participial adjectives as the teacher may re- 
quire. 

Regular and Irregular Verbs. — Pupils may readily be 
taught the difference between Regular and Irregular 
Verbs by the teacher's writing verbs on the board in 
two columns, and showing that those of one column 
form their past tense regularly by adding ed to the 
form of the present, and that the others do not. 

They may then be taught that those which form their 
past tense and their perfect participle by the addition of 
ed are called regular verbs, and that the others are called 
irregular. 

Suggestions. — 1. Pupils will be able to detect the per- 
fect participle by its making sense with the word have 
placed before it. 

2. Let the pupils write a number of verbs by express- 
ing the present tense, the past tense, and the perfect par- 
ticiple. Thus : 

walk, walked, (have) walked, 

sing, sang, (have) sung. 

3. Let the pupils tell which of these are regular and 
which irregular verbs. 

4. Let them select the regular verbs from the irregular 



220 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

from a number dictated by the teacher, and write in sep- 
arate columns. 

The following cautions may be taught here, with 
proper explanations, illustrations, and exercises : 

Cautions. — 1. Do not use the past tense with the 
verbs have or be in the different modes and tenses. 

2. Do not use the perfect participle to express past 
time. 

In writing the analysis of sentences containing parti- 
ciples place the participle to the right of the noun which 
it modifies, thus in the sentence, " The fire burning in 
the grate is very cheerful." 

The 

burning | in grate | the 



fire 
is cheerful. 



very 



Properties of Adverbs. — Pupils may be taught the 
comparison of adverbs in the same manner as the 
comparison of adjectives, to which the reader is re- 
ferred. 

Suggestions. — 1. Let the pupils be required to write 
the degrees of comparison of such adverbs as the teacher 
may dictate. 

2. Let them select adverbs from given sentences, and 
name the degree of comparison indicated. 

The following cautions may be taught in this con- 
nection, being fully explained, illustrated, etc., as sug- 
gested heretofore : 

Cautions. — 1. Do not use adjectives for adverbs. 

2. Do not use two negatives to express negation. 

3. So place the adverbs in a sentence as to show clearly 
what they modify. 



LANGUAGE-LESSONS AND GRAMMAR. 221 

4. Do not place an adverb between the parts of an 
infinitive. 

Prepositions. — In reviewing Prepositions let the pu- 
pils be directed to show what words they show relation 
between. 

Teach the following 

Caution. — Do not use the nominative form as the object 
of a preposition. 

Conjunctions. — In reviewing Conjunctions require the 
pupils to show what they connect. 

Teach 'the following 

Cautions. — 1. Use than after else, other, rather, and 
words in the comparative degree. 

2. When you wish to express equality use as and as. 

3. When you wish to deny equality use so and as. 
Write the conjunction in written analysis by placing 

dotted lines beneath, as in the following : 

(1.) He 



hoped that 



you 

would succeed. 



(2.) You 

may go, 

bui 



will stay. 

Interjections. — In writing the analysis of sentences 
containing interjections, which have no grammatical 
relation, place dotted lines beneath the independent 
words, as in the following : 



222 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

Oh! 



boat 
glides 



the 

beautifully | how 

down stream ! | the 

Attribute and Copula. — It is best at this stage of the 
child's progress to show that sometimes the predicate of 
a sentence consists of a verb and a noun or a verb and an 
adjective, and that in such cases the verb is called the 
Copula, and the noun or the adjective the Attribute. 

The child should be taught also that in such cases the 
copula is an intransitive verb, or a transitive verb in the 
passive voice. 

Suggestions. — 1. Let the pupils name the predicates in 
properly-selected sentences, and name both copula and 
attribute. 

2. Give them exercises in writing the analysis of sen- 
tences containing attributes. 

3. Direct the pupil to write the copula and the attri- 
bute together as one predicate, as follows : 



essay 
was production. 



The medicine The 

a tastes bitter, very 

fine | very 

Teach the following 

Caution. — Do not use the objective form of a pronoun 
as the attribute of a sentence. 

III. General Suggestions on Language-Culture. 

The following suggestions will be of use to those who 
desire to secure the best results of language-culture in a 
systematic way : 

1. Have Pupils Copy Reading-Lessons. — This will not 



LANGUAGE-LESSONS AND GRAMMAR. 223 

only give them practice in the use of the pencil, but it 
will also train to close observation and give them practi- 
cal training in the use of capital letters and punctuation- 
marks. 

2. Have the Pupils Copy from the Blackboard. — In this 
case the teacher may write a short description, but better 
a short story, on the blackboard. The pupils may then 
be required to copy it. This exercise may be continued 
for some time, but care must be taken that the pupils 
copy accurately and that they be made critical and cor- 
rect in their work. 

3. Have the Pupils Copy while the Teacher Reads. — 
This is more difficult than the last, for the reason that 
the pupil must now spell without the teacher's example 
from which to copy, and the exercise may be made still 
more difficult by the teacher's making no suggestions or 
explanations with reference to punctuation-marks. 

4. Have the Pupils Reproduce. — In this exercise, while 
the teacher reads or relates a story to the pupils, they 
give close attention, and after he has finished they pro- 
ceed to write out the story as nearly as possible in the 
manner in which it was related. The exercise may be 
varied by the teacher's postponing the reproduction 
until the next day, or by giving the pupils permission 
to rewrite the story at any time before the next language- 
recitation. 

5. Let Pupils Write Letters as Soon as they can Express 
Themselves. — This is not only a practical exercise, but it 
is also one in which pupils will take great interest. These 
letters may be written to one another, to the teacher, to a 
pet bird or a pet dog as if these could appreciate what is 
said to them. 



224 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

IV. Grammatical Analysis. 

Grammatical Analysis has been taught in some of our 
best schools for more than a quarter of a century, but 
there are still many schools into which the subject has 
not been introduced. 

The importance of grammatical analysis has -hardly 
been appreciated by some teachers, from the fact that 
their knowledge of grammar has been very meagre ; but 
where it has become a part of the regular course of study 
analysis has done much to give the student a clearer con- 
ception of the subject of grammar and the ends to be 
gained by the study of English. The close, accurate 
habits of thought engendered by the critical analysis of 
the English sentence is of almost incalculable value to 
the learner in giving to him training of judgment. 

Written Analysis. — Written analysis, sometimes known 
as " diagramming," has its use in the study of grammar. 
Unfortunately, however, those who have made a hobby 
of written analysis have claimed for it too much, and 
those who have not clearly understood the object of 
written analysis have raised objections to the system be- 
cause they supposed the purpose of diagramming to be 
that of conveying an abstract idea to the child's mind 
through the pictured form. 

Written analysis bears much the same relation to the 
subject of grammatical analysis proper as written work 
on the board by means of figures and symbols bears to 
the practical work of arithmetic, or the diagrams, equa- 
tions, etc. placed on the board bear to the demonstra- 
tion of propositions in geometry. 



LANGUAGE-LESSONS AND GRAMMAR. 225 

It ought not to be claimed that one can write the 
analvsis of a sentence who cannot analyze the sentence 
orally, any more than one can solve a problem with 
chalk on the blackboard who does not in his mind at the 
same time perform all the mathematical work that he 
indicates on the board, or draw the diagram, write out 
the equations, etc., of a geometrical demonstration with- 
out being able to give that demonstration orally also. 
But who objects to the symbols in arithmetic, algebra, or 
geometry? Yet their use is analogous to that of written 
analysis in grammar. 

Written analysis, whether called diagramming or out- 
lining, is simply a pictured form placed before the eye 
to indicate the relations of the different parts of a sen- 
tence. 

Its Use. — The chief use of written analysis is not to 
teach the child to analyze, but to save labor. This it 
does by presenting the sentence in such a form that the 
teacher and the other members of the class can detect at 
a glance whether or not the student understands clearly 
the relations of the different parts of the sentence. A 
teacher in examining the work of the pupils can deter- 
mine its correctness or incorrectness in one-tenth of the 
time usually employed. 

Written Analysis Economizes Time. — It does this by 
allowing every member of the class to analyze a large 
proportion of the lesson, where by oral analysis alone 
the pupils might be able to analyze but a single sentence 
each. In this respect the written has the same advan- 
tage over the oral analysis as the written method of reci- 
tation in spelling has over the oral method. The teacher 
may place as many pupils at the blackboard as can COn- 
jD 



226 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

veniently be accommodated, permitting each to analyze 
a different sentence from the others, just as we would 
have each solve a different problem from those solved 
by other members of an arithmetic class. Each should 
in turn be called upon to analyze orally the sentence 
which he has placed on the board, and thus gain the 
advantages afforded by both the oral and the written 
analysis. 

A modification of the foregoing plan consists in hav- 
ing a portion of the class analyze in writing while others 
at the recitation-seats take up the same sentences and 
analyze orally. In this manner each may be led to de- 
tect and correct the mistakes of others. 

Written analysis is valuable from the convenience 
which it affords the teacher in examining the work of 
the pupils. At such times as the teacher desires to give 
his class a written examination or a written review dia- 
gramming becomes invaluable as an aid in enabling him 
to examine rapidly the written work of the pupils. 

Oral Analysis should not be Neglected. — The tendency, 
when pupils are not cautioned, is for them to neglect the 
oral analysis and spend too large a part of the time in 
diagramming. The careful teacher will of course guard 
against this, and see that whenever a sentence is dia- 
grammed the pupil is called upon to give the oral 
analysis also. 

Simplicity of Diagrams. — The simpler the system of 
written analysis the more valuable it will be. Some 
systems look well upon paper which are exceedingly 
complex on account of the great number of characters 
used, and in such cases it will be found that the system 
of diagramming is almost as difficult to learn as the 



LANGUAGE-LESSONS AND GRAMMAR. 



227 



analysis of the sentences itself. Some systems are ob- 
jectionable because they require words to be written 
either perpendicularly or obliquely, both of which are 
unnatural in the writing of English. 

The following system is submitted for the consideration 
of teachers because of its simplicity, and because the words 
are placed in every case horizontally, as they are found in 
ordinary writing. The analysis of sentences by this sys- 
tem requires but little more time than is required to place 
the sentences on the blackboard. 



Directions. 

1. Place the subject and the predicate to the left of 
a bisected perpendicular line, the former above and the 
latter below the bisecting line; thus: 



Dogs 
bark. 



Lions 
roar. 



2. Place the modifiers to the right of the words which 
they modify ; thus : 

weather 



enlivens 



This 
pleasant 
nature. | all 



3. Words understood may be indicated by a cross (x); 
thus : 



Try 



to sell 



X him 

book. | the 

4. Place a dotted line under connectives not used to 
modify; thus: 



228 



METHODS OF TEACHING. 



I 

know 



— — 

will come I to-morrow. 



5. Write connectives which are used to modify, without 
the dotted line ; thus : 



He 

taught 



X me ^^work 
how<^ 



the 



is done. 

6. When a connective modifies w r ords in two clauses 
enclose it in marks of parenthesis; thus: 

He 



studies 



(while)<^ 



we 
play. 



7. Represent clause-modifiers by joining them to the 
words modified by a <, as in examples under directions 
4, 5, 6 ; thus : 

The 
.who 

ae to see I us 



man 



has returned 



< 



to home. I his 



8. When a phrase is modified, join its parts by an in- 
verted caret, and this with the modifier by a horizontal 
line ; thus : 



friend 
lives 



Our 

below town. | the 

y 

just 



Note. — The modifies town, and just modifies the phrase 
below town. 

9. Join the parts of a compound element by oblique 
lines ; thus : 



LANGUAGE-LESSONS AND GRAMMAR. 



229 



< 



Health 
and 



strength 
are gained 



°y 




temperance 
and 

exercise. 



10. Separate the members of a compound sentence 
where the conjunction is omitted, by dotted lines; thus: 



boat 
upset 



The 



men 


the 


fell 


into river | the 


and 


they 
warn 


then 

to shore. | the 

rapidly 



11. Place a dotted line beneath correlatives; thus: 

Both 

our 



< 



friends 
and 

foes 



will watch 



our 

us 

critically. 

12. Place independent parts above the sentence a little 
to the left, with a dotted line beneath ; thus : 

Land | of sires ! | my 





What 






hand 




* 


mortal 




e'er 


can untie 






band 


the 
filial 






^ that 
^^ knits 


me 

to strand ? 



thy 
rugged 



m 



230 



METHODS OF TEACHING. 



13. Place a dotted line beneath introductory or inde- 
pendent words, not modifiers; thus: 



Well, 

we 

have beaten 



John, 



you. 



X 

come 



to me. 



14. Join factitives and attributes to the predicate verb. 
Thus, in factitives: 

They 
made white. 

Thus, in attributes: 

Snow 
is beautiful. 

15. When a word is in apposition with a clause place 
a bracket after the clause ; thus : 

You 

evidence 





subjects 


His 


wall | the 


made king. 


him 


. 


Gold 




very 


is metal. 


a 
precious 



gave 



X us 

answer ; | no_ 



clear 

of guilt. | your 



16. Where a relative is used with a double construction 
it may be indicated as follows: "This is what I bought." 

This 

'I 

^bought. X 

[which] 



is what 

"[that] 




If it is thought desirable to name the different elements, 
probably the simplest plan would be to mark adjective 
elements 1 ; adverbial elements, 2 ; and objective ele- 
ments, 3. 

The foregoing principles may be made to cover, it is 
thought, all the sentences whose construction comes an- 



LANGUAGE-LESSONS AND GRAMMAR. 231 

der the rules of English syntax. They are given here 
substantially as found in the author's Practiced English 
Grammar: 

A System of Analysis should be Simple. — The object of 
analysis is to train the pupil to discover the exact mean- 
ing of a sentence by determining the force of each word. 
This is done, to some extent, also, by parsing, but anal- 
ysis is more general in its character, and deals often with 
groups of words instead of individuals. Thus, an ad- 
jective element may consist of a single adjective, of a 
noun having an adjective relation, or of a phrase or a 
clause performing the office of an adjective. 

It is not necessary that any system of analysis, whether 
oral or written, should be complex or intricate in character. 
Indeed, the more simple the system the more readily will 
it be grasped and the more will the pupil be encouraged 
to pursue the study with eagerness. It is enough to 
know that elements consist of words, phrases, or clauses, 
without, for instance, considering them as also elements 
of the first, the second, or the third class. 

In teaching analysis the pupil who has learned the 
force of any part of speech may readily be taught that 
a group of words may perform the same office as a 
single word. Thus, if it is shown that a single word, 
as an adjective, may limit a noun, it may be readily 
shown also that a phrase or a clause may perform the 
same office; and that if the single word be called an 
adjective element, the same name may be applied to 
the phrase or the clause ; and thus also with the other 
elements taught. Parsing should be made to assist 
the pupil in determining the force of words in an- 
alysis. 



232 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

Principles of Analysis. — The following simple prin- 
ciples may be taught as the basis of all analysis : 

1. That nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, and ad- 
verbs may be limited or modified. 

2. That prepositions, conjunctions, interjections, and 
articles, as such, are never limited. 

3. That adjective elements are used to limit nouns 
and pronouns. 

4. That adverbial elements are used to limit adjec- 
tives, verbs (including participles), and adverbs. 

5. That objective elements are used to limit transitive 
verbs in the active voice when the limiting element rep- 
resents the object upon which the action terminates. 

If the pupil have a thorough knowledge of the fore- 
going principles he need have little fear of being un- 
able to determine what any element in a given sentence 
may modify. These principles are really the ground- 
work of all analysis. 

Methods of Analysis. — The two methods of analyzing 
a sentence have been named the Synthetic and the 
Analytic. 

By the Synthetic method, after having decided on the 
class and kind of sentence, the pupil names the simple 
subject of the chief clause, and then one by one the 
modifiers which limit it; then the complete or logical 
subject. The same plan is pursued with the analysis 
of the predicate. 

By the Analytic method, after having decided upon 
the class and kind of sentence, the pupil names the 
complete or logical subject of the chief clause, then 
the simple or grammatical subject, then the modifiers, 
and after these the modifiers of the modifiers. Pie 



LANGUAGE-LESSONS AND GRAMMAR. 233 

proceeds in the same manner in the analysis of the 
predicate. 

Both methods aim to accomplish the same result, the 
grammatical analysis of the sentence, and each has its ad- 
vocates. Our choice is in favor of the analytic. Thus, in 
analyzing the sentence, " When the speaker* had finished 
the audience retired," the analysis would be as follows : 

" This is a complex declarative sentence. The prin- 
cipal clause is the audience retired, and the subordinate 
clause, when the speaker had finished. Of the principal 
clause the audience is the logical subject; the simple 
subject is audience, which is modified by the adjective 
element the. Retired ivhen the speaker had finished is the 
logical predicate; the simple predicate is retired, which 
is modified by the adverbial element when the speaker 
had finished. Of the subordinate clause the speaker is 
the logical subject ; the simple subject is speaker, which 
is modified by the adjective element the. The logical 
predicate is had finished when, of which had finished is 
the simple predicate, modified by the adverbial element 
when used as a conjunctive adverb." 

Suggestions. — 1. The first exercises in analysis should 
consist of very simple sentences ; it is best to use only 
declarative sentences for a time. 

2. Pupils should be taught to distinguish clearly the 
exact meaning of the terms used in grammatical anal- 
ysis, such as "phrase," " clause," " member," " logical," 
" grammatical," etc. 

3. Avoid the use of unnecessary terms and those 
which tend to confuse the mind of the learner. The 
simpler the analysis the better. 

4. Let oral and written analysis go hand in hand. 



234 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

They should be taught together; each should supple- 
ment the other. 

5. See that pupils use strictly correct language in their 
oral analysis. If false syntax is excusable anywhere, it 
certainly is not in the grammar-class. 

6. Make grammatical analysis the basis of logical 
analysis, so that pupils may study English intelli- 
gently and with the view of determining the thought 
of the writer. 

V. Parsing. 

Parsing consists in naming the part of speech, in tell- 
ing its properties, and in showing its relation to other 
words in the sentence. 

The object of parsing is mainly to train the pupil to 
distinguish the use of words, and thus discover the rela- 
tion which words bear to one another in a sentence, as 
well as the force they have in modifying thought. Pars- 
ing does not enable us to speak or write more correctly, 
but it teaches us to understand more clearly the force of 
language, and thus indirectly enables us to use it with 
greater precision. 

Parsing is valuable also as a discipline in training the 
pupil to verify the definitions of the various parts of 
speech, their subdivisions, and their properties. In this 
respect it is valuable also in making pupils familiar 
with the rules and principles of grammar from the con- 
stant review afforded. 

These being the objects of parsing, it will readily be 
conceded that much of our teaching of grammar, and 
particularly of parsing, in the past, has been valueless, 
and therefore, to a great extent, useless. 



LANGUAGE-LESSONS AND GRAMMAR. 235 

Parsing for beginners should be very simple, consist- 
ing chiefly in naming the parts of speech and selecting 
given parts of speech, as suggested heretofore in connec- 
tion with "Language- Lessons." As the pupil learns 
the classes or subdivisions of the parts of speech he may 
be required also to name these, and as he learns the 
properties he may add these also. 

The Reasons. — After pupils have once learned the 
parts of speech, their classes, and their properties, it 
may be well for them to give for a time the reason for 
every statement until these reasons have become fully 
understood, when they should be gradually dropped. 
Thus, in parsing a noun, as in the sentence, "Mary saw 
her brother," let the pupil state — 

Mary is a noun, it is a name ; 

Proper, it is the name of a particular person ; 

Singular number, it means but one; 

Third person, it is spoken of; 

Feminine gender, it is the name of a female ; 

Nominative case, it is used as the subject of the sentence. 

When the pupil has become thoroughly familiar with 
the reason for each of these statements the following: 
condensed form may be used : 

Mary is a proper noun, of the singular number, third person, 
feminine gender ; it is in the nominative case, being used as the 
subject of the sentence. 

Brief Forms. — As pupils advance it will be found of 
advantage to use still more brief forms, omitting, in fact, 
everything except government, relation, and agreement. 
Thus, in the foregoing sentence with advanced classes it 
is necessary to say only, " Mary is a proper noun in the 
nominative case ; it is used as the subject of the sentence." 



236 



METHODS OF TEACHING. 



Selected Words. — It will often prove of advantage for 
the teacher to select the more important or the more 
difficult words in the given sentences. Time may be 
economized in this way, and at the same time pupils will 
be trained to think by being led to examine the parsing 
exercise in order to ascertain the words which present 
the greatest difficulties. 

Choice Literature. — With beginners it is of course wise 
to select such language as they can readily comprehend, 
but with those who have made some advancement in the 
study of grammar it will be found of special advantage 
to have them study the current literature of the day, 
and that which is recognized as standard and classic in 
our language, for the twofold purpose of acquainting 
themselves with choice literature and examining criti- 
cally the construction of English sentences as written 
by the best English authors. 

Written Parsing. — Written parsing has its advantages 
in saving time and in securing work from the whole 
class. Both the written and the oral form may be used 
in the same recitation. Pupils also, in preparing their 
class-work, may be profitably employed in writing out 
the parsing exercise. 

For the convenience of those who desire to use written 
forms occasionally, we suggest the following, the first 
form being for a single part of speech, as the pronoun 
in the following sentence : " Let him beware, lest he de- 
ceive his own soul." 



Pronouns. 


Kind. 


Number. 


Person. 


Gender. 


Case. 


Government. 


him, 

he, 

his, 


persona], 
si 

u 


sing., 
i< 

«i 


3d., 

u 
(1 


Mas., 
it 

ii 


Obj., 

Num., 

Pos., 


Object of lei. 
Subject of deceive. 
Limits soul. 



LANGUAGE-LESSONS AND GRAMMAR. 



237 



The other parts of speech may be written in a similar 
manner, and the teacher will find the employment not 
only useful, but it will be also in a measure congenial to 
the pupils, particularly to those who are thoughtful and 
desirous of learning. 

The following form may be used with all parts of 
speech at the same time. Should the sentence prove too 
long for the space allotted, it may be divided and placed 
below, as in ordinary writing : 

He is the freeman whom the truth makes free. 



Pro., 


Verb, 




Art 


•> 


Noun, 


Pro., 


Art., 


Noun, 


Verb, 


Adj., 


per., 


intr., 


freeman. 


com., 


rel., 


truth. 


com., 


tran., 


qual., 


3d, 


indie, 








3d, 


3d, 




3d, 


act., 


fac, 


sing., 


pres., 








sing., 


sing., 




sing., 


indie, 


whom 


mas., 


3d, 








mas., 


mas., 




neut., 


pres., 




nom., 


sing., 








nom., 


obj., 




nom., 


3d, 




is. 


He. 






after is. 


makes. 




makes. 


sing., 






















truth. 





Suggestions. — 1. The teacher should see that his pupils 
understand clearly and definitely the meaning of the ex- 
pressions they use in parsing, such as, "limit," " modify," 
" qualify," " relate to," " agree with," and similar terms. 

2. Permit pupils to dispense with formal parsing 
occasionally, and have them point out the agreement, 
relation, and government only. 

3. Let the pupils occasionally have a parsing-match. 
They become wonderfully attentive and critical under 
the stimulus afforded. 

4. See that the pupils are careful to use none but good 
English in the parsing exercises; let them apply this to 
both their pronunciation and their syntax. 

5. Give the pupils a correct form, and when they de- 
viate from this show them wherein the error consists, 
and train them to avoid it. 



238 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

6. Do not make a hobby of parsing ; there are other 
parts of grammar more important than this. 

7. When a written form is used insist upon neatness 
as well as correctness in the work ; remember that the 
chief use of the written work is to save time and to in- 
duce each pupil to prepare the lesson properly. 

Analysis and Parsing. — These are closely related, and 
they may readily be taught together. The old plan was 
to begin with the etymological part of grammar, teach- 
ing the parts of speech, their classes, modifications, etc., 
thoroughly, and with this unite parsing as the pupil pro- 
ceeded, and then take up analysis if it was taught at all. 
Many at present claim that we should begin with an- 
alysis, on the ground that the sentence is the unit of 
thought. 

A better plan than either is a union of the two : the 
simpler parts of analysis may be taught quite as readily 
as parsing, as has heretofore been indicated in the first 
steps of Language-Lessons. The plan of teaching sub- 
ject, predicate, and modifiers, so far as the work may be 
conducted with beginners, has been sufficiently indicated. 
It presents no serious difficulties whatever, and needs no 
further discussion. 

VI. Syntax. 

The errors in the use of speech by all speakers and 
writers are many. Even the ablest writers now and then 
are guilty of violating the rules governing the construc- 
tion of sentences ; and as to the errors in the every-day 
conversation of the majority of people, they are simply 
innumerable. The systematic correction of the errors is 
based on certain rules and principles which govern the 



LANGUAGE-LESSONS AND GRAMMAR. 239 

most correct writers and speakers in their use of English. 
In grammar the correction of these errors is known as 
the Correction of False Syntax. 

The chief object aimed at in the correction of false 
syntax is that of training the learner to use the language 
correctly. The pupil becomes critical and careful in his 
own use of language by correcting the mistakes of others. 

The argument that w T e should never permit a child to 
correct, or even see, a false sentence is of no value, for 
the greatest possible care we may exercise will not pre- 
vent his seeing or hearing incorrect language every hour 
of his life. It is a well-known psychological law that 
the impression made upon the mind by any object of 
knowledge is all the stronger for having been placed in 
contrast with its opposite. The storm at sea is all the 
grander and the more terrible from its contrast with the 
peaceful calm by which it was preceded. 

A secondary object in the correction of false syntax is 
that of making the student thoroughly acquainted with 
the rules and principles which govern the correct use 
of our language, together with their application, thus 
enabling him to acquire correct habits in his own use 
of speech. 

The selection of errors to be corrected should, as far as 
possible, be made from the every-day language of the 
pupils. To these should be added such incorrect forms 
of speech as may be current in the neighborhood. Selec- 
tions should be made also from the literature of the day 
and from the master writers of the language, for even in 
the writings of men of the highest literary reputation 
there will be found many violations of the rules gov- 
erning the correct use of English. - These errors must of 



240 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

course not be taken as correct because made by reputable 
writers. They tend rather to show that even the most 
careful are not infallible in their use of correct language. 

Correct Speech should be Taught Early. — Children learn 
their early use of language by imitation. If the models 
which they follow were invariably correct they would 
speak correctly as a habit, but if these models be incor- 
rect there seems to be but one way of correcting the 
vicious example of those with whom they associate, and 
that is by making the pupils careful to use correct speech 
by calling their attention to their own errors and those 
of others, and thus making them observant and critical. 
The moment, therefore, that they are detected in the 
use of incorrect language the teacher should call atten- 
tion to the mistakes, and, whenever possible, have the 
child correct its own errors. The important end to be 
secured is that of having the child use correct language 
from the force of habit. If we can secure this result 
much of the subsequent labor in training to correct 
speech may be avoided. 

Syntax in all Branches. — Care must be exercised that 
pupils use good English in all their recitations. The 
teacher who reserves all corrections of speech for the 
grammar-class has but a partial appreciation of his duty. 
If he is cautious to correct mistakes wherever and when- 
ever he may observe them, he will find his teaching in 
the subject of language very much simplified. 

Method of Teaching the Principles. — It is not enough to 
have the pupils correct the sentences they may meet with. 
It is still more important that they be taught the princi- 
ples which govern the use of language, and be ready to 
apply them both in the correction of errors and in the 



LANGUAGE-LESSONS AND GRAMMAR. 241 

construction of their own sentences. It is an excellent 
plan to have the pupils study a rule as a whole, and 
in their class-exercise write not only the rule, but also 
the notes and cautions appended. This plan is partic- 
ularly effective in the case of those who are somewhat 
advanced. 

Forms for Correction. — With beginners it is deemed best 
to allow them simply to correct the errors, without re- 
quiring any special form, though it is well to have them 
give a reason for their correction if the reason is known 
to them. With those more advanced, however, it is best 
to use a simple form. The following is used by many 
excellent teachers, and is strictly correct. 

Illustration : " Them that believe in me shall be 
rewarded.' 7 TfSe sentence is incorrect, because them, a 
pronoun having the objective form, is used as the subject 
of the proposition ; the nominative form They should be 
substituted, according to Rule L, Caution 1. 

Incorrect Forms. — Care should be taken that correct 
forms be used. Thus, in the foregoing illustration to 
say that " Them, a pronoun in the objective case/' etc., is 
not correct. The case of a noun or a pronoun is de- 
termined bv its relation to other words in the sentence ; 
the word form should be used instead of the word ease. 
Also, to quote the rule and say that " The subject of a 
finite verb must be in the nominative case," is incorrect, 
as the subject of a finite verb is in the nominative case, 
and it should have the nominative form. It is also in- 
correct to say, (i Them should be changed to They ;" rather 
we should say, u They should be substituted for Them" 
or, " The nominative form T/iey should be substituted 
for the objective form Them." 

16 



242 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

Mixed Exercises. — In applying the principles of syntax 
it is well at times to give what may be termed "mixed 
exercises;" that is, those in which only some of the 
sentences are incorrect. This will require the pupil to 
apply his knowledge of the subject of syntax in deter- 
mining not only which sentences are correct and which 
incorrect, but also how to make the proper correction, 

Suggestions. — 1. In teaching the rules of syntax and 
their application to the correction of errors see that 
pupils clearly understand them. Do not be satisfied 
with having the pupils commit to memory the rules, 
notes, remarks, and cautions. 

2. Select a large number of sentences for correction 
from e very-day speech, current literature, and text- 
books. Pupils soon learn to correct the errors found in 
the textbooks they use, and they often even go so far as 
to mark the necessary corrections the first time made, so 
that on review it may not require any study or thought. 

3. In the correction of sentences use a form only so 
long as it may be necessary for the purpose of impress- 
ing on the mind the proper rule and caution. Time 
may often be saved by omitting the form when the 
pupils are once thoroughly familiar with it. 

4. Encourage pupils to criticise the language of 
standard writers. This will make them critical and 
accurate in their own use of language. 

5. Encourage pupils to make a note of such errors as 
may be heard on the playground or in the recitation- 
room, and have them corrected in class. 

6. Use good English in the presence of your pupils, 
in order that they may learn to speak correctly as a 
habit. 



LANGUAGE-LESSONS AND GRAMMAR. 243 

Teach by Topics. — Many parts of grammar are com- 
paratively easy to comprehend. There are, however, a 
few principles which present serious difficulties to a 
student. Among these may be named participles, in- 
finitives, the transitive verb, factitives, restrictive and 
non- restrictive clauses, and the use of the possessive in 
certain constructions. The most profitable way of teach- 
ing these is to take up one topic at a time, and dw T ell on 
that one point until it is thoroughly understood. Other 
textbooks and the opinions of other teachers should be 
brought to bear on the mind of the learner. The teacher 
should illustrate the language of the book with examples 
selected from other sources than the textbook. in use. 

Pupils should be encouraged also to consult other 
textbooks, if available, in order to get a clearer under- 
standing of the topic. Ample time should be given for 
the pupil to comprehend the exact meaning and import- 
ance of the topic taught. It is entirely safe to say that 
fully fifty per cent, of the teachers of the United States 
would fail in a thorough examination on one or more of 
the above-named subjects. Very many teachers do not 
have a clear conception of even the transitive verb, and 
very many more are still less certain as to their knowl- 
edge of participles and infinitives. 

Technical Grammar. — By technical grammar is meant 
that part of grammar which deals strictly with the sci- 
ence itself, including the technicalities and idioms. Many 
have argued that technical grammar should not be taught 
in the public schools. But it will be noticed that every 
such person, though his education may have been only 
such as the public school affords, is always ready to 



244 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

apply the principles of technical grammar in the crit- 
icism and correction of such errors as he may meet with. 
While language-lessons and composition will give the 
pupil exercise and training in the correct construction of 
sentences, and train to correct speech, technical grammar 
is a necessity to the proper comprehension and under- 
standing of the principles on which the practice is 
based. It bears the same relation to the use of lan- 
guage as the science of arithmetic bears to the mechan- 
ical operations in that branch of study. 

Words and their Functions. — It is important to teach 
that words are parts of speech only as they are used in 
speech. Pupils frequently imbibe the notion that all 
words are divided into parts of speech, without relation 
to their use in sentences. This is an error which the 
teacher must be prepared to meet and correct. He 
should teach that the use of a word in a sentence de- 
termines what part of speech it is. Thus, the word well 
may be used as five parts of speech, as follows : 

1. The well is filled with water (noun). 

2. We are all well (adjective). 

3. The stream seemed to well out from the rocks (verb). 

4. Well ! well ! Is it possible that he could have be- 
haved so badly? (interjection). 

5. The lesson was well recited (adverb). 

6. Well, let us begin (independent adverb). 

Illustrating the Uses of Words. — It is a valuable exer- 
cise to have pupils illustrate the various uses of words. 
Thus, after having been taught the power and use of a 
word, as well in the above sentences, let pupils be re- 



LANGUAGE-LESSONS AND GRAMMAR. 245 

quired to write one or more sentences to illustrate each 
use of the word. This method of teaching should be 
carried through the whole grammar. For instance, in 
verbs something like the following might be required : 

1. Write is as a principal verb; as, The boat is on the 
river. 

2. Write is as a copulative verb; as, This apple is 
sweet. 

3. Write is as an auxiliary verb; as, The boy is 
writing. 

An exercise of this kind is valuable in training the 
learner to distinguish the different uses of such words 
as is, are, and the other verbs usually known as copu- 
lative. 

Similar exercises might be given on such verbs as 
ran; as, 

1. We ran a race, where the verb is transitive, being 
followed by a kindred noun. 

2. The horse ran a mile, where the verb is intransitive, 
the noun following a preposition understood. 

3. The engineer ran a train, where the verb is transi- 
tive, from its causative meaning. 

4. The brooks ran nectar, where the verb is transitive, 
being used in the sense of produced. 

VII. Suggestions on Teaching Grammar. 

1. In the teaching of any department of grammar, 
and particularly analysis and parsing, train your pupils 
to be liberal-minded. Two students or two teachers may 
decide differently as to the construction of a sentence or 
the disposition of a word, and yet neither can say with 
certainty that the other is wrong. Each may be right 



246 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

according to his understanding of the meaning to be 
conveyed by the author. 

2. Do not train your pupils to be biased or narrow in 
their opinions. Teach them that many words may be 
disposed of in several ways, according to the meaning 
implied in the sentences where they are used. 

3. Beware of quoting a single textbook as absolute 
authority. The very fact that scarcely two textbooks 
on grammar agree throughout is a strong argument 
why both teacher and pupil should consult a number 
of authors on disputed points. 

4. Be careful to see that pupils not only understand 
the rules of syntax, but that they also be made expert 
in the application of them to the correction of errors 
and the construction of sentences. 

5. Give special attention to the practical part of 
grammar, sentence-construction and the correction of 
sentences. 

6. Give most attention to the most important parts 
and to those most difficult for the pupil to comprehend. 

7. Do not make a hobby of any department of gram- 
mar : parsing, analysis, the correction of false syntax, 
practical sentence-construction, — all have their uses. 

8. Shorten the work by omitting non-essentials ; thus, 
in the declension of nouns the work may be greatly 
facilitated by having the pupils write the possessive 
singular and plural only. In conjugation much work 
may be saved by having the pupils give only the synop- 
sis, writing out the first person singular in all the modes 
and tenses. 

Variety may be secured also by having one pupil write 
the synopsis in the first person singular, another in the 



LANGUAGE-LESSONS AND GRAMMAR. 247 

third person plural, and so on. The teacher may also 
require a verb written in a certain mode, tense, person, 
and number. This will test the pupil's knowledge 
thoroughly. 

9. Remember that it is constant practice that makes 
not only fluent speakers, but also correct ones. Expert- 
ness comes not from rules, but from practice. 

10. Rise above the textbook. Be original; teach 
something beyond ; no textbook can cover one-fifth the 
ground, particularly in practical exercises, that ought to 
be covered by a competent teacher. 



CHAPTER VII. 

Composition. 

Composition is the art of expressing one's thoughts. 
The term is usually restricted, however, to the expression 
of connected thoughts by means of written language. 
These thoughts may be such as originate in one's own 
mind, or they may be such as have been impressed upon 
us through the faculty of perception. 

Importance. — The importance of teaching pupils to 
compose or express their thoughts connectedly, correctly, 
and impressively cannot well be over-estimated. There 
is no more desirable accomplishment than the ability to 
express one's self elegantly and tersely in one's own 
language. Latin and Greek may give us valuable disci- 
pline, but the ability to write one's own language fluently 
and correctly should be prized much more highly than 
the most finished education in any foreign language, 
either living or dead. 

I. The Advantages of Teaching Composition. 

1. It gives Valuable Culture to the Various Mental 
Powers, employing not only observation, but also mem- 
ory, imagination, the understanding, and even reason. 

2. It Cultivates a Literary Taste. — The student who is 
taught to compose and express his own thoughts reads 

248 



COMPOSITION. 249 

eagerly the thoughts of others, partly that he may make 
comparisons, but partly also because he acquires a taste 
for literature in the very effort to express his own 
thoughts. 

3. It Trains the Learner to Think. — The day has gone 
by when pupils were expected to w 7 rite on all sorts of 
subjects, even such as were entirely beyond their com- 
prehension. It is now a recognized fact that the writer 
must have something to say before he can say it. 

4. It gives Language- Culture. — Nothing so much en- 
ables one to write correctly as constant practice. The 
best way to learn to express ourselves properly is to com- 
pose, and to record our thoughts on paper. 

5. It Creates Interest. — We never read a paragraph so 
closely or with so much interest as when we expect to 
reproduce it; nor do we observe at any other time so 
closely as when we are desirous of conveying to others 
our observations and impressions with reference to the 
objects or scenes which are a part of our experience. If 
properly taught, composition may be made one of the 
most interesting of studies, as well as one of the most 
beneficial. 

* 
II. Methods of Teaching Composition. 

Practical composition should accompany all language- 
lessons, though the pupil do no more than write sentences 
correctly. This will at least train to correct expression, 
and prepare the pupil to express his own thoughts prop- 
erly when he comes to the work of composition proper. 

The first efforts at composition should be very simple. 
The child should of course first have ideas to express ; 
without these composition is not only useless, but also 



250 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

impossible. Whence the child gets these ideas is a ques- 
tion to be settled by psychology. Suffice it to say, that 
every intellectual power is a part of the mental machinery 
which creates thought: perception, memory, imagination, 
understanding, reason, — all are active in the production 
of thought. 

Oral Composition should Precede Written. — The dread 
of composition-writing often arises more from the name 
than from the actual work itself when once fully under- 
stood. Pupils may readily be trained to tell what they 
know about an object to be described or to relate the in- 
cidents of a journey, when they would shrink from the 
effort to express themselves on the same subjects if re- 
quired to do so in writing. 

III. The Plan. 

Copying. — When a class has had no previous training 
in composition-writing, let them copy reading-lessons or 
paragraphs from such books as may be found conveni- 
ent. Having exchanged their papers or slates, let them 
correct one another's exercises, giving special atten- 
tion to spelling, capital letters, punctuation-marks, and 
paragraphs. While making these corrections the pupils 
should of course be permitted to use the open book in 
order to make the comparisons. This will enable pupils 
to do the work correctly, and at the same time save the 
teacher considerable time and labor. 

Copying from Dictation. — This is also a valuable exer- 
cise, inasmuch as it compels the pupil to apply his 
knowledge of the principles and rules taught to him as 
lie pursues his course of language-lessons. The lessons 



COMPOSITION". 251 

may be graded as to difficulty; the teacher may at first 
name the punctuation-marks as he proceeds, also the 
the capital letters. Then the pupils should be made to 
depend upon their own knowledge as to where capital 
letters should be used. Lastly, the teacher should sim- 
ply read, permitting the pupils to decide for themselves 
as to where capital letters, periods, and others of the most 
familiar punctuation- marks should be used. The teacher 
should grade these lessons according to the capacity of 
pupils. 

Reproduction of Thought. — A third step in the work 
of composition-writing is that of reproducing in the 
child's own language a story or interesting incident re- 
lated by the teacher. The teacher should be careful to 
select for his exercises short stories or sketches, such as 
the pupils can readily remember, and then change 
gradually to those of greater length. 

After having reproduced stories or incidents for a 
time, the pupils should be required to reproduce descrip- 
tions ; and these descriptions at first should be such as 
relate to objects familiar to the children, that they may 
reproduce intelligently by being able to add from their 
own stock of knowledge where memory in any sense 
fails. 

Do not insist on a literal reproduction at first. Let it 
rather be an abstract only, but expressed in the child's 
own language, for this is the only true test as to whether 
the child is thinking for itself or simply memorizing 
and repeating w*ords. 

The exercise of reproducing thought may be varied by 
having pupils read a story, an incident, a description, or 
even an argument, and then, with books closed, reproduce 



252 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

it as accurately as possible in their own language. This 
is an exercise which we have found valuable even in such 
branches as mental and moral science. Nothing is more 
conducive to fixing the thought in the mind than this 
written reproduction. 

Original Composition. — The first original compositions 
required should be short ; at least, the pupil should not 
be required to write more than he can express readily. 
These compositions should be either narrative or de- 
scriptive. 

Narration. — If narration be preferred, the pupil may 
be permitted to select his own subject, or the teacher may 
assign one for the whole class. In either case the learner 
may be both helped and encouraged by asking him ques- 
tions, so as to develop thought as well as recall that which 
has already been in the child's mind. This narration should 
consist of something entirely familiar to the child, as a 
sleigh-ride, a day's coasting, a game of ball, a trip to the 
city, a ride in the country, or something similar. 

Description. — If description be selected, it would be 
w r ell for the teacher to give a lesson in some of the 
earliest compositions on the object to be described, so 
as to arouse thought and at the same time convey some 
information. The object may be placed before the class, 
or the lesson may consist in describing a given object in 
its absence. The lesson may be varied by requiring the 
pupils to describe a landscape, a stream, the mountains, 
a city, and other objects. 

The exercise in description may be varied by placing 
a picture before the pupils, having them study it closely 
and then write a description of it and the different ob- 
jects portrayed. Native talent will here begin to show 



COMPOSITION. 253 

itself, and those of vivid imagination will by no means 
restrict themselves to a literal description of what they see. 

News. — A weekly or semi-monthly newspaper in the 
school-room is an excellent medium for composition- 
training. All pupils should be trained to write short 
news paragraphs. These afford excellent exercise in 
both description and narration. The news department 
of our papers of the day are those most eagerly read. 
The modern newspaper is a recognized necessity. 

Historical Sketches. — When pupils have once pro- 
gressed so far as to have read history and biography, 
it is an admirable plan to have them condense their 
knowledge and reproduce it in short sketches. Thus, 
having read the full account of the American Revolu- 
tion, let them write a sketch giving the causes, some of 
the most interesting incidents, and close with the results. 
This will not only train to accurate expression, but it will 
also lead to condensation of thought and more effective 
study. 

What has been said of historical w r riting is equally 
applicable to biography. It is well sometimes to assign 
a subject, as Washington, Columbus, etc., with the pur- 
pose of having pupils acquire a taste for biographical 
study, and for the purpose of training them to repro- 
duce in writing what they have read. 

Forms. — Pupils should, as a part of the composition- 
exercise, be trained to write all business and other forms, 
such as letters of all kinds, applications for positions, notes 
of invitation, condolence, and congratulation, acceptances 
and regrets, resolutions of respect, etc., telegrams, prom- 
issory notes, drafts, checks, negotiable notes, receipts, due- 
bills, and other business forms. 



254 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

Iii some institutions these are all embraced under the 
head of " Letter-writing/' but, after all, letter- writing is 
but a part of practical composition. 

Under the head of letters pupils should be required 
to write letters of various kinds — a letter to a sister, to 
a father or a mother, to the teacher, to a school-mate, to 
a friend, or even to a favorite dog or canary. 

In telegrams they should be taught the necessity and 
importance of condensing, and yet omit no necessary 
words. 

Analysis of the Topic. — In some of the first exercises 
it is best for the teacher, when he assigns the same 
subject to a whole class, to analyze the method of 
treatment in such a way that the pupils may write 
intelligently on the topic. After having placed this 
analysis on the board so that pupils may copy it or refer 
to it, he should ask a number of questions, so as to arouse 
thought in the mind of the child and thus furnish a basis 
for the production. 

Reading Compositions. — There is much variety in the 
practice of teachers as to reading the compositions pub- 
licly. Some prefer to have an afternoon set apart when 
all may read ; others take portions of several days and 
have but a part of the school read ; while still others 
do not have the compositions read publicly at any 
time. Undoubtedly, great benefit arises from having 
the pupils read publicly what they have written, but 
teachers differ greatly in their plans. Probably as 
profitable a plan as any is that of having the writers 
read their productions in the reading-class and at the 
regular time assigned for that branch. Should the 
class be very large, so that not all may be heard in 



COMPOSITION. 255 

the allotted time, a portion only of the class may be 
called upon, reserving the others for another occasion. 
The teacher should criticise posture, manner, expres- 
sion, etc., the same as in the reading-class at any other 
time. 

"Composition day" has usually been dreaded by pupils 
in almost all schools, and chiefly because the work of teach- 
ing composition-writing has been without system, and be- 
cause pupils have written under compulsion when they 
had really no thoughts to express. As a consequence, 
pupils frequently absented themselves as composition 
day came round, rather than submit to the faultfind- 
ing of the teacher for their seeming negligence. 

If the exercises of composition day be made general 
in their character, so that the interest not only of the 
pupils, but of the whole community, is awakened, the 
teacher need have little fear that compositions will be 
a cause of truancy. Let the day, if a general exercise 
is preferred, be made a literary occasion, in which 
declamations, music, recitations, dialogues, debates, a 
society or school paper, and essays shall all form fea- 
tures of the occasion, and composition day will be hailed 
as one of the pleasantest days of the term. 

IV. Suggestions on Composition. 

1. See that pupils have thoughts to express before 
they attempt to express them. The first essential is 
that the child has something to say on the subject 
selected before he attempts to write. 

2. Have your pupils express their thoughts in cor- 
rect language, and always in such words as they under- 
stand. 



256 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

3. Do not insist that their language shall consist of 
monosyllables. Monosyllabic language may be strong, 
but language needs to be beautiful as well as strong. A 
judicious intermingling of words of various lengths is 
the most harmonious arrangement as well as the most 
expressive. 

4. Encourage pupils to read, and then to reproduce 
what they have read either in newspapers or in the 
works of standard authors. 

5. Encourage them to refer to the dictionary whenever 
in doubt as to the correct meaning or the proper applica- 
tion of a word. 

6. Encourage them to read the best and most classic 
authors, to discover, if possible, the essentials which 
make their style pleasing. Reading literature of a cap- 
tivating style will tend to give one power to form a 
pleasing style of one's own. 

7. Ease of expression may be acquired by constant 
practice, but also by copying and memorizing the pro- 
ductions of the elegant writers in one's own language. 
We naturally imitate the style of those writings with 
which we are most familiar, and their methods of ex- 
pression to some extent model ours. 

8. Give occasional exercises in transposing poetry to 
prose. This will require the learner to remodel many 
of the sentences and express them in a different form. 

9. Exercises in paraphrasing are excellent. Let the 
pupil take some popular proverb and write an explana- 
tion of it. 

10. See that pupils do not attempt to select subjects 
beyond their comprehension. Encourage them to be 
original by having them write only on such themes as 



COMPOSITION. 257 

they understand, in having them express themselves 
naturally, and by giving them proper praise for even 
their humblest efforts. 

11. Encourage your pupils to correct and rewrite 
what they have written, and prune, until they express 
themselves in the best possible manner. 

12. Lead your pupils to see that composition is only 
telling or writing what they know or think on any 
subject. 

13. Make your composition-exercises interesting by 
having variety. The teacher is often able to create in- 
terest by giving a five-minute exercise; that is, by allow- 
ing the pupils five minutes' time to express themselves 
on a given subject. 

14. Let your criticism be generous. Harsh criticism, 
particularly in the composition-class, tends greatly to 
discourage the child and disgust him with the exercise. 

15. See that the compositions of your pupils are ex- 
pressions of thought, and not a mere string of meaning- 
less sentences connected by a series of conjunctions. 

16. See that their sentences are not ambiguous, and 
that they do not violate the rules of grammar and 
rhetoric. 

17. Let the writing be exact. Where the wrong 
word is used call their attention to it, and in this wav 
aid them in discriminating accurately the nicer shades of 
meaning in words. 

18. Teach accurately the meaning of the various 
classes of sentences, and show pupils the use of para- 
graphs and how they should begin. 

19. Have your pupils write abstracts of stories they 
have read, also imaginary stories. 



258 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

20. Give them practice in writing news events for 
the press, whether they be forwarded to an editor or 
not. 

21. Have them write short scientific articles; this 
will both give them a review and train them to think 
and compose with special accuracy. 

22. Let them write descriptions of imaginary voyages, 
in which they can employ their knowledge of geography 
and history. 

23. When pupils in a class are not all required to 
write on the same theme, place a number of suitable 
subjects on the blackboard, and let them select from 
these. 

24. Train them to outline or analyze the topic which 
they select before they begin to write on it. 

25. Encourage them to think over each point in the 
outline carefully before they attempt to write. This 
will do more than anything else to lead them to think 
for themselves. 

26. In the preparation of the more extended essays 
pupils should be trained to observe closely and reflect 
intently before giving their thoughts expression. 

27. In the collection of material, pupils should read 
also the thoughts of others; these will arouse new 
thoughts in their own minds, and make their writings 
all the more valuable. 

28. The student preparing to write should be en- 
couraged to carry a notebook, in which he should jot 
down such thoughts with reference to his subject as may 
occur to him from time to time. 

29. When once the analysis of the topic has been 
made, the student should select only those parts which 



COMPOSITION. 259 

seem most important, and dwell on these, but without 
repetition of either thought or language. 

30. Let the teacher by all means cultivate among his 
pupils a taste for good reading and pure literature. Let 
him give such culture to his pupils as will create in them 
a desire to read for themselves what is beautiful and inter- 
esting in the writings of others, and, having once secured 
this result, he need have little fear as to their success, not 
only in the department of language, but in every other 
department as well. 

31. Remember that the daily exercise in written ex- 
pression of thought is much more valuable than the formal 
semi-monthly compositions prepared for an occasion. 

32. In the correction of compositions it is usually better 
simply to indicate the error than correct it ; by this plan 
the pupil will be enabled to correct most of his own 
errors, and when not able to do so it will be time for 
the teacher to suggest the proper correction. 

Some teachers prefer to indicate the sort of correction 
to be made, whether in spelling, capital letters, or other- 
wise, but in general it will be found best simply to indicate 
that an error has been made, and let the pupil discover it 
for himself. 

Some of the errors may be written on the board for 
the class to criticise and correct. When such a plan is 
pursued, the teacher should never be so inconsiderate as 
to permit any pupil to know from whose compositions 
the errors have been gleaned. In general, those errors 
which are likely to be made by all or most of the mem- 
bers of the class should be placed on the board. 



CHAPTER VIII. 

Rhetokic. 

i 

The subject of Rhetoric is so closely allied to that of 
grammar, and it enters so largely into the art of elegant 
expression, that it is deemed best to offer a few sugges- 
tions here with reference to the most effective methods 
of teaching it. Writers on rhetoric differ so widely in 
their presentation of the subject that no definite plan 
can be presented which could be adapted to the text- 
books now before the public, nor is it deemed advis- 
able to present here the qualities of style, divisions of 
discourse, etc., that are to be found in the textbook 
proper. 

1. Divisions of Rhetoric. — Most writers on rhetoric 
agree on dividing the subject into two chief depart- 
ments, Style and Invention, Some of these discuss the 
subject of style first, on the ground that the transition 
from the rules of grammar to the rules of style is more 
natural for the student. Others treat of invention first, 
claiming that the writer must have something to say be- 
fore he learns how to express his thoughts. The proper 
method is to teach the two together, giving practical com- 
position-exercises in connection with the discussion of the 
topics. 

260 



RHETORIC. 261 

2. Diction. — In discussing Diction do not let pupils 
rest satisfied with committing to memory definitions of 
terms. Require them also to show wherein words violate 
the principles of diction — purity, propriety, and precision. 

Let pupils not only select words that violate these 
properties, but also criticise current literature and sub- 
stitute proper synonyms for the violations. 

A very interesting exercise is that of having the pupils 
write as many synonyms of a given word as possible, and 
then construct sentences incorporating these words in such 
a way as to show the various shades of meaning. Thus, 
the synonyms of leave, as quit, resign, forsake, desert, 
abandon, and withdraw, may be employed in sentences 
of the pupils' own construction. This exercise enlarges 
their vocabulary and makes them critical in the choice 
of words, while it gives them at the same time practice 
in composition. 

Another important exercise is that of having the 
pupils trace the linguistic origin of words. If this were 
carefully attended to we should hear fewer mongrel for- 
mations, such as walhist, timist, cablegram, and others 
used by speakers and writers who claim to use repu- 
table English. 

In teaching the proper rhetorical construction of 
sentences see that pupils not only know how to criticise 
the language of others, and show how it violates the rules 
for clearness,- unity, strength, harmony, etc., but that they 
also express their own thoughts in properly-constructed 
sentences. 

3. Figures. — Inasmuch as a large portion of our speech 
consists of figurative language, it is desirable that the 



262 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

students learn to detect readily the difference between 
figurative and literal expressions, and to appreciate the 
heightened effect gained by the use of figures of speech. 
Suggestions. — 1. In teaching figures see that pupils are 
able to select and name properly the figures in ordinary 
and classic discourse. 

2. Have them write any required figures in original 
composition. 

3. Let them change figurative language to plain, and 
plain language to figurative. 

4. Give them exercises in changing one kind of figure 
to another, as a simile to a metaphor, or a metaphor to a 
simile. 

5. Teach them to be careful not to multiply figures un- 
necessarily, and particularly not to construct mixed figures. 
The use of mixed figures is the most flagrant error that 
young and effusive writers are apt to commit. 

4. Versification. — Suggestions. — 1. Train pupils to dis- 
tinguish carefully between poetry proper and versification, 
or the mechanical part of poetry. 

2. Give frequent exercises in scanning the different 
varieties of poetic verse. 

3. Show pupils that mere rhyme and metrical arrange- 
ment do not constitute poetry, and that not all poetry is 
rhvme. 

4. Have pupils frequently convert poetry into prose, 
so that they may appreciate fully poetic license as man- 
ifested in the use of elision, figures of enallage, personi- 
fication, etc. 

5. Have pupils illustrate the requirements of a perfect 
rhyme. 



RHETORIC. 26 



o 



6. Give them exercises in metrical composition or 
verse- writing, permitting them at first to select their 
own measure, and afterward adapting the sentiment 
to some measure suggested by the teacher. 

5. Prose Composition. — Suggestions. — 1. Teach pupils 
to distinguish accurately between the various forms of 
prose composition — reviews, essays, treatises, editorials, 
travels, history, biography, fiction, and discourse, in- 
cluding orations, addresses, lectures, and sermons. 

2. Give pupils practice in writing the various forms of 
prose composition, requiring them to use the style prop- 
erly adapted to each, and showing them wherein to con- 
dense and where to be profuse in the use of language. 

3. In the writing of discourses impress upon the minds 
of pupils the importance of dividing the discourse sym- 
metrically, so that it may have a proper introduction, 
body, and close. 

6. Punctuation. — Suggestions. — 1. In order to teach 
punctuation effectively the teacher should have a thor- 
ough knowledge of grammar, and the more extended 
the pupil's knowledge of that science the more readily 
will he be able to comprehend the principles of punc- 
tuation and apply them in practice. 

2. Only the more important rules should be taught at 
first, such as the pupils can readily understand and apply, 
even though such teaching do not exhaust the rules with 
regard to any particular point under discussion. 

3. Let pupils not only punctuate such exercises as the 
teacher may dictate with the proper marks omitted, but 
also copy and punctuate while the teacher reads. 



264 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

4. Pupils should also have considerable practice in 
punctuating their own compositions, and be able to give 
the proper reason for every mark inserted. 

7. Rhetorical Essays. — It is a valuable practice to have 
students of rhetoric write essays on the different topics 
studied. Thus, after having studied diction, let the 
whole class be required to reproduce the discussion in 
their own language. The exercise w T ill afford valuable 
practice in composition, and at the same time serve to 
impress the different points more firmly on the mind. 



CHAPTER IX. 

English Literature. 

Few studies afford so wide a scope for mental culture 
as does the literature of one's language. Too little 
attention has been given to the subject of English litera- 
ture in our American schools. Much, however, may be 
done toward creating and cultivating a taste for litera- 
ture, even in an informal way, in connection with read- 
ing and history, but it is best that a definite method be 
pursued. 

The plan of teaching literature naturally arranges it- 
self in three divisions, as follows : First Steps in Litera- 
ture, Studies in Literature, and the History of IJterature. 
Most of the efforts at teaching literature in the past were 
simply the teaching of literary biography and the history 
of literature, and this accounts for the fact that the re- 
sults have not been satisfactory. 

I. First Steps in Literature. 

With beginners the two most important ends to be 
aimed at are to arouse an interest in literary biography 
and create a taste for beautiful thoughts expressed in 
beautiful language. 

Biography. — In teaching to beginners the biography 
of literary men much the best plan is to teach those in- 

265 



266 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

cidents which will be likelv to arrest the attention of the 
child. Thus, in the career of Goldsmith his travels on 
the Continent and his playing on his flute for supper 
and a night's lodging, together with other interesting 
incidents in his checkered life, will have a very much 
greater influence in awakening in the heart of the child 
a desire to know more about the author and his writings 
than all the statistics as to his birth and death or the 
number and titles of the books he wrote, and when he 
wrote each, could possibly do. The lives of some of our 
literary characters, Goldsmith, Gray, Johnson, and others, 
may be made to read almost like a romance ; and this is 
the style of teaching which should characterize the first 
work in literature. 

Authors' Birthdays. — The celebration of authors' birth- 
days by appropriate literary exercises is an excellent 
means of awakening an interest in literature. At such 
a time a brief biography of the author should be read 
by some selected pupil, or the teacher should give an 
interesting biography of the writer whose birthday is 
celebrated. At this time the pupils may also recite some 
selections from the author. Interesting anecdotes may 
be related, and if visitors be invited to the school on such 
an occasion, these too may add something to the general 
fund of knowledge. 

Memorizing Extracts. — In the early stages of teaching 
literature the pupils should be encouraged to memorize 
choice extracts from each author as he is studied. These 
should be brief, and such as are in every way worthy of 
being remembered either for the sentiment they contain 
or for their beauty of expression. Fill the child's mind 
w r ith the noblest thoughts of our great authors, and it 



ENGLISH LITERATURE. 267 

will manifest but little desire to read such literature as 
is unhealthy or pernicious in its tendencies. 

II. Studies in Literature. 

The second step in the teaching of literature is that 
of training pupils to study the language of the various 
authors critically, with the view of not only appreciat- 
ing the beauties, but also detecting the defects, of lan- 
guage, style, and thought. 

Too often the drill in rhetoric and grammar which our 
young men and women receive in school ends with the 
mere technical drill, without an application of the prin- 
ciples of either science to the critical analysis and study 
of our literature, and thus much of the practical benefit 
of these studies is lost. 

A Limited Number of Authors. — It is important in 
studying literature in the manner here suggested that 
but a limited number of authors be taken. A larger 
number would not only tend to confuse the mind of 
the learner, but also give him only a partial knowl- 
edge of any one of them. 

The Plan. — A good plan is to study first a brief biog- 
raphy of the particular author discussed, and acquire a 
knowledge of his work ; also read a short criticism of 
his style and character as an author ; and, finally, exam- 
ine critically one or more of his masterpieces. 

Logical Analysis. — It is important to study some of the 
masterpieces of one's language critically, for the reason 
that it causes the student to make a practical application 
of his knowledge of rhetoric and grammar. These are 
to him no longer abstract sciences ; they become import- 
ant instruments in his hands to measure the thought and 



268 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

weigh the expression of those whose writings have been 
adjudged the models of literary style. 

This logical analysis not only compels the pupil to 
apply his knowledge of grammar and rhetoric, but it 
also enables him to appreciate the beauties of both 
thought and expression as well as detect the faults of 
the various writers. It thus fosters a taste for the pure 
and the exalted in literature, and prepares the student to 
form a vigorous style of his own. Literary criticism is 
always conducive to literary growth and development. 

III. History of Literature. 

The literature of a language is closely connected with 
the history of the people speaking that language, and to 
a great extent the history of a literature is the history of 
a nation. The current history of a nation has much to do 
with shaping the literature of that nation from age to 
age, and the progress or the decline of a people may 
be traced in its literature. 

The study of the history of literature can be pursued 
most profitably by those who have studied the history 
not only of their own country, but of the world. To 
study the history of literature without this general 
historical knowledge will give us but a limited view, 
and enable us to judge only partially of the influences 
of the different literary epochs on their successors. 

The student of general literature should be liberal- 
minded and examine closely into the habits of the peo- 
ple during any literary era, in order to determine their 
influence in the formation of the literary style which 
characterized that era. He should also consider care- 
fully the reflex influence which the literature of the 



ENGLISH LITERATURE. 269 

period exercised on the people. It will be well for 
him also to see clearly what the influence of any one 
period or epoch may have been on its successor. All 
this is necessary in order to get a comprehensive view 
of the subject; and these close discriminations can be 
made only by those who have considerable general his- 
torical knowledge. 

Biographical Sketches. — Considerable interest may be 
awakened in the study of literature by having pupils 
write short biographical sketches of the authors they 
study. 

Critiques. — When pupils have advanced sufficiently to 
be able to criticise not only the style and the language 
of an author, but his productions as a whole, it will be 
found profitable to have them write literary criticisms 
of dramas, poems, histories, textbooks, and other works. 
The effect will be not only to give them valuable literary 
training, but also to cultivate a pure literary taste. 



MATHEMATICS. 

CHAPTER I. 

The Value of Mathematical Study. 

Mathematics forms the second department of study 
to be pursued by the child. In our present discussion ft 
is necessary to consider the method of teaching only 
Arithmetic, Algebra, Geometry, and their applications. 
It is not the province of this work to discuss the higher 
mathematics or show how they may be taught, for if a 
pupil be well taught in the three branches above named, 
he will have acquired such an impetus in the methods 
of mathematical study that not even the most staid and 
conservative professor will be able to check his enthu- 
siasm. 

The Value of Mathematical Study. — The study of math- 
ematics is valuable in a twofold sense : 

1. It gives Valuable Mental Discipline. — It may readily 
be shown that nearly every intellectual faculty is exer- 
cised and strengthened by mathematical study. Prob- 
ably no study requires greater concentration of thought, 
and none thus furnishes more valuable exercise for the 
culture of attention. 

270 



THE VALUE OF MATHEMATICAL STUDY. 271 

Mathematics is valuable also in cultivating man's 
reasoning powers. Dr. Wickersham says: "The habit 
of rigid demonstration, of close thinking, which math- 
ematics inculcates, must be in itself very valuable. If 
no other kind of reasoning be practiced, it will no doubt 
lead to a one-sided culture; but, pursued with other 
kinds, any danger of this sort is avoided, and much is 
gained by introducing somewhat of mathematical exact- 
ness and clearness, both of thought and language, into 
what has been called the 'common reasoning of life/ " 

2. It is Valuable in its Application. — There is no other 
science which is so closely identified with all the business- 
affairs of life. Indeed, there is scarcely any other science 
into which mathematics does not, to some extent, enter as 
a factor. Natural Philosophy, Astronomy, Botany, Chem- 
istry, Geography, and other studies in which matter is con- 
sidered in its various forms and movements, depend in a 
measure on mathematical laws. 

It is true that mathematics has received more than its 
due share of attention in many, probably in most, schools, 
but this is not the fault of the science itself. Let 
teachers give to it its due share of attention, no more 
and no less, as compared with the other branches, and 
we shall find that it is a most valuable study, not only in 
itself and as a mental discipline, but also in its applica- 
tion to nearly all other departments of knowledge. 



CHAPTER II. 

Arithmetic. 

I. Methods. 

Definition. — Arithmetic is the science of numbers and 
the art of computing by them. As a science, it treats of 
the principles, properties, and relations of numbers. As 
an art, it applies this science in computation. The term 
arithmetic is derived from the Greek arithmoSy meaning 
"number/' 

Oral and Written Arithmetic. — The processes of solu- 
tion in arithmetic are two : first, that in which words 
alone are used in the solution, which is properly known 
as Oral Arithmetic; and, secondly, that in which written 
characters are employed, which is properly known as 
Written Arithmetic. Mental Arithmetic , as applied to 
oral solutions, is a misnomer, as the same mental process 
is required for a written as for an oral solution. Intel- 
lectual Arithmetic, as a term, is open to the same objection 
as mental arithmetic, for the process of solution in either 
oral or written arithmetic is intellectual, and the term is 
therefore equally applicable to either. If either term 
were admissible, the word "intellectual" would be pref- 
erable to the word " mental," for the reason that the 
latter term includes also the operations of the sensibili- 
ties and the will, which surelv have little to do with 
the solution of arithmetical problems. 

272 



ARITHMETIC. 273 

The question here arises, Should Oral and Written 
Arithmetic be taught together or separately? Argu- 
ments on each side have been advanced. The advo- 
cates of the plan of teaching the two processes sep- 
arately urge the following : 

1. That their object is different, one being discipline 
in analysis, and the other skill in calculation ; 

2. That their spirit is diverse, one being analytic, and 
the other synthetic ; 

3. That they cannot be properly co-ordinated ; 

4. And hence to combine is to neglect oral. 

The arguments in favor of teaching the two together 
are the following : 

1. Time is economized, and thus an opportunity is 
afforded to give more attention to equally important 
subjects — language-culture, natural-science lessons, and 
others. 

2. Fewer textbooks are needed. 

3. When taught separately, oral arithmetic becomes a 
hobby, to the detriment of much more valuable school 
studies and exercises. 

4. Oral solutions are simply preparatory to written 
work. The simpler processes under every rule may 
be taught best orally, and as the work becomes com- 
plicated in character the written work may be substi- 
tuted for the oral. 

5. Both oral and written methods require the same 
intellectual process, and there seems, therefore, to be no 
more reason for separating the two than exists for the 
separation of written and oral recitations in any other 
branch of study. 

6. When oral arithmetic is pursued as a distinctive 

18 



274 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

study, it is liable to degenerate into mere memory- 
puzzles, in which the science of algebra and the science 
of arithmetic become hopelessly mixed. 

7. When taught separately as oral and written arith- 
metic, it is difficult to teach arithmetic systematically, 
for the reason that the progress in the two methods is 
not co-ordinate, pupils usually studying and reciting on 
the same day topics having no connection and being in 
no way related, except that they both belong to the 
science of arithmetic. 

There seems to be really no good reason why arith- 
metic should be divided in the methods of teaching, any 
more than should algebra, grammar, geography, or any 
other branch of study. Taking into consideration the 
fact that this science, when divided, monopolizes almost 
one-third of the school-hours of the day, it is unwise to 
teach the oral and the written process as distinct studies. 

II. Principles Governing the Teaching of Arithmetic. 

1. The First Teaching in Arithmetic should be Concrete. — 
Children think of Number in connection with objects. 
One, two, three, etc. represent to them one boy, two 
apples, three birds, and the like. The first exercises in 
number should therefore be in connection with objects, 
and these objects should be such as are familiar to the 
learner. At first it is best that objects be present, and 
that the pupils be permitted to handle them. Gradually, 
however, the objects may be dispensed with and the names 
only be used. 

Nothing is more convenient in the teaching of the 
fundamental rules than a numeral frame or abacus. 
The pictures found in primary arithmetics serve a 



ARITHMETIC. 275 

good purpose in ornamenting and beautifying the 
page, but their necessity for any other purpose may 
be seriously doubted. 

2. The First Lessons in Arithmetic should be Oral. — 
The pupil in learning to count, which is the first process 
in arithmetical work, should be permitted to see and touch 
the objects for himself. The elementary work may be 
made very much more interesting by means of oral exer- 
cises than otherwise. Pupils may also be taught consid- 
erable arithmetic before they are able to read a textbook, 
and thus be prepared, to some extent, to use the book 
more intelligently and to better purpose when they do 
use it. 

3. Processes should Precede Rules. — The child may be 
taught the mechanical process of performing an arithmet- 
ical operation long before he is able to formulate the rule 
which governs the process. The proper plan is inductive, 
and if the pupil be properly taught he may in time be 
led to formulate the rule for himself, and thus make it a 
valuable part of his own knowledge, which he may have 
at command on all occasions. The how should precede 
the why in all primary instruction. This plan of teaching 
will also serve to create thought, and thus tend to answer 
one of the chief ends of education. 

4. Oral and Written Methods of Arithmetic should be 
Combined. — The first steps in teaching any arithmetical 
topic should consist of oral exercises, until the pupil 
understands clearly the process and the principle em- 
braced, or until problems become so complicated or so 
difficult that the pupil is compelled to waste mental 
energy in the effort to remember the various conditions 
and statements of the problem. At this stage the nature 



276 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

of the work should be changed, and written exercises 
should be substituted for the oral. 

A pupil will acquire a knowledge of arithmetic proper 
much more readily when the two processes are combined ; 
and this, therefore, seems to be the proper method to 
pursue throughout the whole course. Neither should 
be neglected for the other, but each should be made to 
aid the other in attaining the mental discipline and the 
practical instruction afforded by the study of this branch: 

5. Arithmetical Instruction should Aim to be Practical. 
— Aside from the disciplinary value of arithmetical study, 
the science is one of those which have an important bear- 
ing on the work of every-day life. Few branches of study 
enter so largely into the business-affairs of a community. 
From the very beginning pupils may be taught to see 
that the various processes learned have a practical use 
in life. Problems should therefore aim to include actual 
business-operations, such as would be likely to character- 
ize the community in which the subject is taught. Even 
the simplest operations of the beginners may be of this 
character, and the practical value of the study will at 
once be recognized. It is all-important that children 
do not study arithmetic as a collection of puzzles on 
which they may give themselves gymnastic training of 
an intellectual character. 

6. Pupils should be Taught Principles. — One of the 
chief dangers in the distinctive study of so-called Mental 
Arithmetic is that pupils learn solutions rather than prin- 
ciples, and even algebraic problems are solved by a sort 
of arithmetical process which is committed by the pupil 
as a model solution, and is made to answer for every 
other problem of a similar character. Pupils, by the 



ARITHMETIC. 277 

solution of individual problems, should be led induc- 
tively to understand the principles and formulate the 
rules for themselves. 

The student who once understands the principles of 
arithmetic thoroughly will have no difficulty in apply- 
ing them to the solution of problems. Much time has 
been wasted in the past in the solution of problems 
" according to rule." This rule the pupil was ex- 
pected to memorize and be able at any time to apply. 
But when problems arose whose solution required the 
application of a number of rules, the pupil at once 
was led to feel his utter ignorance of the science of 
arithmetic and his inability to apply its principles. 

The Plan. 

Counting. — The child acquires its first idea of number 
by comparing one object with more than one. Its idea 
of number is never abstract, and therefore the counting 
at first should be in connection with objects; thus, one boy, 
two boys, three boys, etc., rather than one, tivo, three, etc. 

The child possesses the idea of number to some extent 
before it enters school. Many convenient objects may be 
found by which the teacher is enabled to expand this 
knowledge, beginning at that point where the child's 
knowledge ends, and carrying it forward gradually from 
one point to another. Grains of corn, beans, strokes on 
the blackboard, or sticks may be used in the counting 
exercise, but the most convenient object is the numeral 
frame heretofore mentioned. 

Pupils should be taught to count not only forward, 
but also backward. Counting backward bears the same 
relation to Subtraction as counting forward bears to 



278 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

Addition. Pupils may also be required after a time to 
count without objects as well as with them. 

The teacher should be careful not to hurry his pupils 
in the matter of counting. Some will learn more rapid- 
ly than others, and the temptation will be to worry those 
who think slowly in order to have them keep up with 
the brighter ones. He should also see that his pupils do 
not count without understanding. Pupils are often able 
to count to a hundred or more, who scarcely know the 
meaning of the words they use. The best test to dis- 
cover whether they are counting intelligently or not is 
to place a number of objects before them, and have them 
count any required number to be placed aside. 

Notation and Numeration. — Notation and Numeration 
should be taught together. When the pupil has learned 
to count one object, the teacher may at the same time 
write on the board the word one and the figure 1, the 
pupil in each case being required to call the word or the 
figure by name, and hold an object in his hand to show 
that he comprehends the value and relation of the word 
and the figure. In a similar manner he may be taught 
the word two and the figure 2, and their relation to 
two objects. In this way, also, the other numbers up to 
nine may be taught. The pupil should in these exer- 
cises be required to reproduce the figure and the word 
on the blackboard, as also any number previously taught, 
when required by the teacher. 

When the pupil reaches ten, he may be taught that 
ten ones are called ten, which is written 10 ; and two 
tens, twenty, written 20 ; three tens, thirty, written 30; 
and so on to 90. 



ARITHMETIC. 279 

The next step is to teach the numbers from ten to 
nineteen. Here he may be taught that — 

One ten and one is called eleven, written 11 ; 
One ten and two is called twelve, written 12 ; 
One ten and three is called thirteen, written 13 ; 
One ten and four is called fourteen, written 11^; 

etc., etc., etc. 

From this point onward the numbers are readily 
taught. A table similar to the following, in which the 
teacher gives the pupils instruction as to the meaning 
of each number, will soon acquaint them with both the 
writing and the reading of numbers to almost any 
extent : 



1 


10 


100 


1000 


10,000 


2 


20 


200 


2000 


20,000 


3 


30 


300 . 


3000 


30,000 


4 


40 


400 


4000 


40,000 


5 


50 


500 


5000 


50,000 


6 


60 


600 


6000 
etc. 


60,000 



The teacher should also teach the relation of tens to 
units, hundreds to tens, thousands to hundreds, and so 
on. 

Pupils should have numerous exercises in both read- 
ing and writing numbers, and when they make mistakes 
they should be led, by judicious questions on the part of 
the teacher, to discover and correct these mistakes for 
themselves. 

After having learned to read and write as far as 
thousands, the pupils may be taught the use and mean- 



280 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

ing of groups or periods, the teacher showing that each 
third period takes a new name, and that the intermediate 
places are tens and hundreds of the group. 

The pupil should not be kept reading and writing 
numbers until he has mastered these subjects thoroughly. 
He may proceed with the simpler exercises in the funda- 
mental rules, but he should have frequent reviews of 
Notation and Numeration until he is entirely familiar 
with both. 

Integers. 

Addition. — In teaching Addition the first lessons should 
be in connection with objects. An oral exercise should 
precede any written work. Here, again, the numeral 
frame will be found convenient. The teacher can hold 
the frame before the pupils, and every operation may 
be illustrated and verified on the frame. 

When pupils have learned to count by l 9 s, they may 
with great profit be taught gradually to count or add 
by #'s, 3'&, ^s, etc., up to 10 J s. This method of count- 
ing by combinations will prove of special advantage 
in subsequent business-applications by enabling the stu- 
dent to add both rapidly and correctly. 

The first lessons in written addition should consist of 
concrete numbers whose sum does not exceed nine in anv 
column. In connection with these lessons the pupils 
should be taught how to write the numbers so that in 
adding, as a matter of convenience, units may be placed 
under units, tens under tens, etc. They should also be 
taught the use of the signs + and — , and how tq rpacj 
expressions containing these signs. 

In this connection may be taught also the addition of 



ARITHMETIC. 281 

some abstract numbers. If the pupil has been carefully 
taught from the first, he will have little difficulty in 
learning this part of addition. 

The second series of lessons should also begin with 
concrete numbers, but should include such that the sum 
of one or more columns may exceed nine. The first les- 
sons should be oral, in order that the pupil may first 
learn how to express the sum in words. When once 
he can add orally, he should have exercises in adding 
single columns and writing the results, and, following 
these, exercises containing two columns, and so on, 
making the work gradually more and more difficult. 

The teacher should first teach how the mechanical 
part of the work is done by placing himself at the 
board, and permitting the pupils to add while he 
shows them how to write the result and what to do 
with the number not written on the board. After the 
pupils have once learned how to w T rite the results, they 
should be sent to the board and the teacher should dic- 
tate a number of problems to them, grading the exercises 
in difficulty, and drill until he sees that the children are 
able to do the work for themselves. 

If the teacher have a mathematical chart, he may 
now give them a number of questions to be solved, or 
he may place several columns on the blackboard and 
indicate what parts may be added, as the upper four 
lines, the lower six lines, etc., so as to give the pupils 
a number of problems on which to practice and acquire 
expertness. 

The third series of lessons should include a number 
of practical reading-problems, such as are likely to occur 
in business-operations, as the cost of certain articles pur- 



282 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

chased at a store or the sum of the number of yards of 
carpeting in several rooms. 

As a variation of this exercise the pupil may with 
profit be required to originate some problems, which he 
may either solve or have referred to other members of 
the class. This exercise will tend not only to make him 
think, but it will also make him thoroughly acquainted 
with the principles of the study he pursues. 

Subtraction. — The same general principles govern the 
teaching* of Subtraction as apply to the teaching of 
Addition. By some writers it is held that the two 
subjects should be taught together ; and this may be 
done with success, to a certain extent, in the simpler 
exercises. Oral exercises should precede written work, 
and the first lessons should consist of concrete numbers. 

The pupil should first subtract by l's from a given 
number downward; thus, 20, 19, 18, 17, 16, etc. Fol- 
lowing these exercises should be others in subtracting 
by #'s ; as, 50, 48, 46, 44, etc., 51, 49, 47, 45, etc. ; and 
thus also by 5's, ^ ? s, 5's, etc. The exercise may be 
varied by counting both forward and backward by 
£'s, <?'s, and so on. 

The first written exercises in subtraction should consist 
of very simple questions, in which no figure of the sub- 
trahend is of greater value than the corresponding one in 
the minuend. The first numbers should be concrete, and 
following these there may be exercises also in abstract 
numbers, together with practical reading-problems. 

The second series of lessons in subtraction should 
consist first of easy questions in which one or more 
figures in the subtrahend are of greater value than the 



ARITHMETIC. 283 

corresponding figures in the minuend. The explanation 
is best reached by a few simple problems to be solved 
orally; thus, "Six sheep from thirteen sheep, leave how 
many?" The pupil can answer this question readily. 
Now let the work be placed upon the blackboard. The 
pupil will see at once that 6 cannot be subtracted from 3, 
and he will see quite as readily that it can be subtracted 
from 13, as was done in the oral solution. Let a number 
of similar problems be given, the teacher illustrating the 
oral process by written work on the board. The minuend 
in none of these problems should exceed nineteen. 

The next step is that of taking problems whose minuend 
exceeds nineteen; thus, "Eight sheep from twenty -two 
sheep, leave how many?" If the pupil is not able to 
answer this orally, let him answer it by counting on the 
numeral frame or by writing strokes on the board, and 
erasing the number to be subtracted. Having secured 
the proper result, let the teacher place the subtrahend 8 
on the blackboard in its proper place under the minuend 
22. He should then show that 8 units cannot be taken 
from 2 units ; hence he takes one of the 2 tens, which is 
equal to 10 units; these he unites with the 2 units, and 
he has 12 units: 8 units taken from 12 units leave 4 
units. Having taken away one of the 2 tens, there is 
but 1 ten left; therefore there remain 1 ten and 4 units, 
or 14, which the child sees is the same result he secured 
by counting the 8 objects from the 22. The teacher 
should solve a number of questions in this way, let- 
ting the pupils do all the work, if possible, except the 
writing. 

The pupils also should then have exercises on the 
blackboard until the teacher sees that they understand 



284 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

the mechanical process, and then they may be directed 
to solve the problems in the textbook which they use. 

The plan of "borrowing" and "carrying" the author 
believes to be both undesirable and illogical. The truth 
is, we never borrow in subtraction ; we simply convert a 
unit of a higher denomination to units of a lower. Pupils 
readily become quite as expert by the method here advo- 
cated as by any other, and they see the reason for every 
step they take. 

In questions like the following, " Subtract 16 from 
900," we simply convert 1 hundred into tens, and 1 of 
these into units ; we then have 8 hundreds, 9 tens, and 
10 units, when the question becomes as easy as any of the 
others, and the explanation as simple. 

Combination Exercises. — As soon as pupils can both 
subtract and add, they should be required to solve prac- 
tical problems which combine both processes ; and these 
combination problems should be a prominent feature of 
the work from this point forward throughout the Arith- 
metic. Pupils should have exercises in them in connec- 
tion with every rule taught. 

Definitions. — The definitions of the various terms may 
be taught as the pupils proceed from one subject to an- 
other, though the teacher should never require the pupils 
to recite them by number. 

Multiplication. — It is well to show pupils when they 
begin the study of Multiplication that this is simply a 
short or concise method of a special case of addition ; 
thus, that six times 7 added and six times 7 multiplied 
produce the same result. 

The Multiplication Table. — Before much effective work 



ARITHMETIC. 285 

can be done in the teaching of Multiplication it is neces- 
sary that the pupil should know the Multiplication 
Table, at least as far as nine times nine. The old plan 
of acquiring this knowledge was for the pupil to spend 
weeks, and often months, in attempting to memorize the 
table as far as twelve times twelve. The result was often 
very unsatisfactory, for the reason that some were not 
able to memorize readily, and others could see no prac- 
tical use of the table, while still others, who could recite 
the table readily from beginning to end, could give the 
product of scarcely any two intermediate numbers. 

The better plan is that of having pupils construct the 
table for themselves, or at least as much as it may be 
necessary for them to know at a special time. This will 
not only show them the practical use of the table, but it 
will also serve to impress it on their memory. It is 
necessary, however, that they should also repeat the table 
frequently as far as they have learned it, and that they 
should occasionally write it out on their slates. It will 
also be of some advantage to recite it occasionally in 
concert, or even to sing it ; but the teacher should see 
that pupils do not become boisterous in these exercises. 

In order to make the pupil's knowledge of the table 
valuable and permanent the teacher should require him 
to apply it frequently in exercises similar to the follow- 
ing : " Multiply by 3 from 1 to 6;" " Multiply by 5 
from 2 to 7." 

The first written lessons in multiplication should con- 
sist of examples in which there is but a single figure in 
the multiplier. The child should be taught that the 
method of writing the result is the same as in addition, 
and that the figure not written down is added to the 



286 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

next result. It is sufficient in the primary work to teach 
the process alone, leaving the explanation and the reason 
for future lessons. 

The second series of lessons should consist of those 
having two or more figures in the multiplier. Here, 
again, it is best to teach at first the process only, and 
postpone the explanation of the reason for each step 
until the child is able* to understand it fully. As pupils 
become more advanced, they may be required not only 
to give every step of the process of solution, but also 
state the reason. 

Short Methods. — When pupils have learned the ordi- 
nary process of multiplication thoroughly, or when they 
review the subject of arithmetic, they may be taught 
some of the shorter methods of multiplication. 

Among these may be included the Method by aliquot 
parts of one hundred and the Method of multiplying 
when the multiplier is near some poiver of ten, as 998, 
where the shortest method would be to multiply by 1000 
and subtract 2 times the number. 

Division. — Division is the reverse of multiplication ; 
a knowledge of the multiplication table is therefore quite 
as necessary to teach division properly as it is to teach 
multiplication. Thus, it is evident that if 9 times 7 is 
63, 7 is contained in 63 nine times. A division table 
may be constructed from the multiplication table^ but 
there hardly seems to be a necessity for it, for the very 
question, " Why is 7 contained in 63 nine times ? " 
throws the pupil back on his knowledge of the multi- 
plication table, and he answers, " Because 9 times 7 is 
63." 



ARITHMETIC. 287 

Short Division. — What is known as Short Division is 
usually taught before Long Division, chiefly because it 
deals with smaller numbers and is easier. The divisors 
in Short Division do not usually exceed 12, and only 
the partial quotients are written, the processes being per- 
formed mentally. It presents scarcely any difficulty in 
teaching, and it need not here be discussed as a special 
method. 

Long Division. — Probably more time is given to 
mastering Long Division than any other process in 
arithmetic. Much of the difficulty which the pupil 
experiences arises from the fact that the problems be- 
come difficult too rapidly. Only such questions should 
be taken at first as can be solved readily by the process 
of Short Division ; and when the pupil performs the 
operation by Short Division the teacher should solve the 
same problem by the process of Long Division, and 
then show the pupil that the two methods of procedure 
do not differ materially, except that in one all the ope- 
rations are placed on the board, while in the other only 
the partial results are placed there. A great number of 
simple problems that may be solved by either of the 
processes should be given, and this plan should be con- 
tinued until the pupil learns to perform the operation 
by Long Division readily, after which more difficult 
problems may be assigned. When the divisor is to con- 
sist of two or more numbers, the first divisors used 
should be 10, 11, and 12, in order that the transition 
may be made gradually. 

Short Methods. — When pupils have learned both pro- 
cesses, they may be taught some of the short methods of 
division, including the Method of dividing when there are 



288 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

ciphers to the right of the divisor and the Method of divid- 
ing by factors. 

Equal Parts. — The process of division includes not 
only the method of finding how often one number is 
contained in another, but also the division of a number 
into equal parts. In such case both dividend and divisor 
may for the time be considered abstract. Thus, in the 
question, "If 16 acres of land cost 1680 dollars, how 
much does 1 acre cost ? " the solution would be as 
follows: "If 16 acres cost 1680 dollars, each acre costs 
as many dollars as 16 is contained times in 1680, or 105 
dollars." 

The Grube Method. 

Grube's method of teaching primary arithmetic, which 
is used extensively in Germany, consists in teaching 
during the first year all possible combinations and com- 
parisons of numbers from 1 to 10. It is intended chiefly 
for pupils from the age of four to the age of six. Thus, 
in treating of the number 3 the child is taught that 1 + 
1 + 1 = 3; 2 + 1-3; 1 + 2 = 3; 3-1=2; 3-2 = 
1; 3X1 = 3; 1X3 = 3; 3-1=3; and in treating of 
the number 4, the following : 1 + 1 + 1 + 1=4; 4 — 1 
-1-1-1=0; 4-1-1-1=1; 4-1-1 = 2; 4 
-1=3; 4X1=4; 1X4=4; 4-1 = 4. 2 + 1 + 1 
= 4; 2+2=4; 4-2 = 2; 2X2 = 4; 4-2 = 2; 3 
+ 1=4; 1+3 = 4; 4-3 = 1; 1X3 + 1=4; 3X1 
+ 1=4; 4 — 3 = 1, and 1 remaining. 

The method has some prominent advocates among 
American teachers, and many quite as eminent oppo- 
nents. In may be said here that even if the method 
were strictly philosophical, its practical value might be 
seriously questioned. Its usefulness, aside from its 



ARITHMETIC. 289 

novelty, is at least doubtful, as compared with the 
practical and natural methods pursued by the best 
American teachers. Its application is of course limited 
to the four fundamental rules. It would seem, there- 
fore, naturally to follow the teaching of these rules, 
rather than precede them. 

Factoring. 

Ability to factor numbers readily and rapidly is a 
great aid in performing the operations of many parts 
of arithmetic. This is particularly true of the Greatest 
Common Divisor, the Least Common Multiple, Fractions, 
etc. It is held by some teachers to be quite as important 
for the pupil to memorize the factors of numbers below 
100 as it is to know the multiplication table. It cer- 
tainly is a great help in making one expert in the per- 
formance of arithmetical work. 

Frequent exercises in factoring will prove valuable to 
all students. As an occasional drill it is suggested that 
the class be placed at the blackboard, and that the alter- 
nate pupils take odd and even numbers, as dictated by 
the teacher, and w r rite the results only. Thus, 

20 = 2, 2, 5. 24 = 2, 2, 2, 3. 

21 = 3, 7. 25 = 5, 5. 
22-2,11. 26 = 2,13. 
23 = 23. 27 = 3, 3, 3. 

Here also may be taught all the definitions of factors, 
prime, composite, and other terms; also all definitions 
concerning multiples and divisors. 

Suggestions. — It is best to teach beginners but a single 
method of finding the Greatest Common Divisor or the 

19 



290 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

Least Common Multiple of numbers. More than this 
tends to confuse. After pupils have once become thor- 
oughly familiar with one method, they may then be 
taught others, but never so long as they are apt to 
confuse the methods and thus lose the benefit of all. 
The same remark will apply to other arithmetical pro- 
cesses : one of the mistakes we make is that of attempt- 
ing to teach at first more than the mind of the young 
learner is able to retain. 

Fractions. 

The idea of a fraction is most readily taught by means 
of objects. These may be divided so as to illustrate the 
idea of a half, a third, a fourth, etc. Care should be 
taken to use at first only such objects as lose their unity 
by division into parts. Sticks, lines, and strings simply 
divide themselves into shorter sticks, lines, and strings, 
and are therefore not the best illustrations to use. Ap- 
ples, potatoes, sheets of paper, and the like, each of 
which loses its unity by division, answer the purpose 
of illustration much better. 

In teaching the idea of a fraction the child may be 
taught at once how to write it both literally and by 
figures. Thus, if the expression " one-half " be taught, 
the teacher should place on the board both the word one- 
half and the fraction \ expressed in figures. The same 
plan should be followed in the teaching of other fractions. 

Reduction of Fractions. — 1. Whole Numbers to Frac- 
tions. — After the pupil has acquired the idea of a frac- 
tion, and learned how to write and read fractions, the 
first step is to teach how to reduce whole or mixed 
numbers to fractions. The first lessons in this process 



ARITHMETIC. 291 

should be in connection with such objects as are familiar 
to the child, in order that he may fully and readily com- 
prehend each step of the process. Very simple problems 
should be given, such as " How many halves in an or- 
ange?" " How many fourths in an apple?" 

From this the transition will readily be made to such 
questions as " How many halves in 3 apples?" "How 
many fourths in 2 oranges?" After the pupils have 
become familiar with the process of thus reducing 
concrete numbers, further exercises should be given in 
the reduction of abstract numbers ; and when thev have 
once learned to reduce both concrete and abstract whole 
numbers readily to fractions, they should be taught the 
reduction of mixed numbers to fractions, using at first 
such questions as u How many half dollars in 2^- dol- 
lars ?" " How many thirds of a pie in 3^ pies ?" From 
these the change should be made to simple abstract 
numbers, as "How many fifths in 3^?" and similar 
questions. 

All these preliminary exercises should be by oral 
solution, though sometimes it will be found valuable 
for the teacher to require a strictly mental solution, in 
which the child performs the whole process mentally 
and announces the result only. This is a valuable 
exercise for cultivating the power of attention, and it 
affords also valuable memory-culture. 

The written exercises or solutions should follow the 
oral and the mental, and should consist of problems of 
a more difficult nature than those given for oral solution. 

2. Improper Fractions to Whole or Mixed Numbers. — 
The second step in Reduction is that of changing im- 
proper fractions to whole or mixed numbers. Here, 



292 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

also, the first exercises should be oral, and should be in 
connection with familiar objects. Questions similar to 
the following will be found appropriate for the first 
exercises: " How many dollars in 2 half-dollars ?" "How 
many pies in f of a pie ?" " How many apples in f ap- 
ples?" These questions should be followed by those 
dealing with abstract numbers ; and the process should 
be continued until the child can readily solve problems 
or give the result correctly, without hesitation, in simple 
numbers containing fractions as far as tenths or twelfths. 
When the pupil has once learned to perform the reduc- 
tion of fractions to whole numbers readily he should have 
repeated exercises in connection with the reduction of im- 
proper fractions to mixed numbers, beginning, as before, 
with concrete numbers, and proceeding to abstract. In 
the written process, either of reducing whole numbers to 
fractions or fractions to whole numbers, the child should, 
if possible, be permitted to derive and formulate the rule, 
though the teacher should be careful to see that it is cor- 
rectly worded, so as to express exactly what is meant. 

3. Fractions to Equivalent Fractions having Higher 
Terms. — The same general plan of procedure may be 
followed here as in the two preceding cases. The first 
questions should be very easy, and the change to the 
more difficult should be very gradual. The first ques- 
tions may be somewhat like the following : " How many 
fourths of an apple in ^ an apple?" The solution would 
be as follows : " Since there are |- in one apple, in ^ an 
apple there is \ of |-, or |-." The next series of questions 
should consist of those having for the numerator a num- 
ber greater than 1; thus, " How many tenths in J?" 

4. Fractions to their Loivest Terms. — The general plan 



ARITHMETIC. 293 

of procedure here also is the same as in the preceding 
cases. The solution of the simplest questions should 
be somewhat like the following : " How many thirds 
in |-?" Solution, Since \ — %, there are as many thirds 
in |- as -| is contained times in |-, or two thirds. 

In connection with these two cases may be taught the 
principles relative to multiplying or dividing both nu- 
merator and denominator of a fraction by the same 
number. 

5. Compound Fractions to Simple Ones. — The pupils 
may be taught here that a fraction of a fraction, as \ 
of -§-, is called a Compound Fraction. In reducing such 
fractions to simple ones the following solution may be 
followed : " Since -1- equals -^, and -| equals ^, \ of ■§• 
is -|- of T 6 ^-, or 3^." The pupil, by means of similar 
questions, may be led to see that a new denominator 
may be secured by multiplying together the denomina- 
tors of the two parts of the compound fraction. Thus, 
in J of | a new denominator is found in 3X5 = 15. 
For the present, all the child needs is the mechanical 
process; the reason for the method may be taught 
later. 

The second grade of problems should consist of those 
whose numerator is greater than 1 ; as, " What is -J of |-?" 
The solution might be given a^ follows : |- equals -^ ; -J 
of -j^- is 3^-, and -| of -^ is 2 times -j^-, equal to -^ or \. 
Or the following form of solution may be taken : ^ of J 
* s TT > i" °f f * s three times as much, or -^ ; and f of |- 
is twice -^2, equal to -5^-, or -|-. 

The written problems may consist of several simple 
fractions; as -| of f of |-, and similar combinations. 
Here also the pupil should be taught the mechanical 



294 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

process of multiplying the numerators together and the 
denominators together. He may also be taught the plan 
of cancelling like factors in numerator and denominator, 
or be required, as in Case 4, to reduce the fractions to lower 
terms. 

Common Denominator. — A thorough knowledge of the 
preceding cases will enable the pupil to reduce fractions 
readily to a common denominator. It may be well to 
show to the learner the necessity for fractions having a 
common denominator in order that they may be either 
added or subtracted. Thus, we cannot add f and |- with- 
out reducing to 20ths or some other denominator common 
to both, any more than we can add 3 horses and 2 sheep. 
We can add ^ and -£$, however, just as we can add 3 
animals and 2 animals. 

The first questions should have the required denom- 
inator stated in the question. Thus, " Reduce -| and |> 
to 12ths," or, "How many 12ths in -| and |-?" Follow- 
ing these, the same problems maybe put in different lan- 
guage. Thus, " Reduce -| and J- to fractions having a 
common denominator." 

The Least Common Denominator may be taught in 
much the same way, except that pupils must be led to 
see that the least common denominator is the least num- 
ber that will contain all the given denominations without 
a remainder. 

Addition and Subtraction of Fractions. — When the 
pupil has once thoroughly mastered the elementary prin- 
ciples of fractions, as heretofore explained, he will have 
little trouble to learn the processes of adding and sub- 
tracting fractions. The chief thing for him to remember 



ARITHMETIC. 295 

is that only similar fractions can be added or subtracted, 
and that fractions must first be reduced to a common de- 
nominator before the processes of addition and subtrac- 
tion can be performed. 

Let the pupils have ample exercises, particularly in 
the addition and subtraction of fractional numbers con- 
taining halves, thirds, fourths, sixths, eighths, tenths, for 
nearly all business calculations are limited to these. 
Very many exercises should be furnished by the teacher, 
and these may either be original or be selected from 
other textbooks than that in use. 

Multiplication of- Fractions. — Multiplication of Frac- 
tions properly includes three cases : 

1. To Multiply a Fraction by an Integer. — This may 
be taught in two ways: first, by multiplying the nume- 
rator, and then reducing the fractions, as3X-§-=-^- = 2; 
or, second, by dividing the denominator, as 3 X |- = •§- = 2. 
Either plan is correct ; the first is the easier, and there- 
fore the better to begin with, particularly in connection 
with concrete numbers. It is a plan also by which all 
problems can be solved, while the second plan requires 
that there be a common factor in the multiplier and the 
denominator. 

2. To Multiply an Integer by a Fraction. — The plan 
of teaching this case need not differ from that of teach- 
ing the preceding. The mechanical process in finding 
6 X f, or taking |- of 6, does not differ; the result is the 
same whichever number is placed first. Practical prob- 
lems may precede the abstract process for the purpose of 
awaking interest. The following will serve to illustrate : 
"A boy had 25 cents, and lost i of it; how much did 



296 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

he lose?" The solution of abstract problems should 
follow, as "How much is f of 15?" etc.; and follow- 
ing these should come problems resulting in mixed 
numbers, as "How much is f of 7?" 

3. To Multiply a Fraction by a Fraction. — This pro- 
cess is substantially the same as that of reducing a 
compound fraction to a simple one. The pupil may, 
however, be taught here to utilize the principle of can- 
cellation more fully than in dealing with compound 
fractions. The pupils should have frequent exercises 
also in reading-problems, such as follows: " What cost 
1-|- dozen of eggs, at 12^- cents a dozen?" These will 
give him practice in analyzing the process of solution. 

Division of Tractions. — Division of Fractions gives 
rise to four cases : 

1. To Divide a Fraction by an Integer. — The first 
problems here should be such as contain numerators 
which are divisible by the given number, such as the 
following : " If 3 caps cost t 9 q of a dollar, how much 
will 1 cap cost?" The analytic solution of these will 
lead the pupil gradually to see the mechanical process 
of dividing the numerator by the given number. After 
this form of solution has been learned the problems may 
be made a little more difficult, and their character may 
be made to change, so as to multiply the denominator 
instead of dividing the numerator. The following prob- 
lem will serve to illustrate: "If 3 boys earn |- of a 
dollar, how much will 1 boy earn at the same rate?" 
The solution may be given as follows : " If 3 boys earn 
-| of a dollar, 1 boy will earn at the same rate ^ of -| of 
a dollar, or -^ of a dollar." 



ARITHMETIC. 297 

The pupil may be taught that either multiplying the 
denominator or dividing the numerator is correct, and 
he may be permitted to give either solution as the one 
or the other may be the easier for him. 

2. To Divide an Integer by a Fraction. — In teaching 
this case the best plan is to begin by reducing both 
integer and fraction to fractions having a common de- 
nominator, as in the following solution : " If 1 turkey 
cost f of a dollar, for 3 dollars, or -^ dollars, as many 
turkeys may be bought as |- is contained times in -^ 2 -, or 
4 turkeys." If this is not entirely clear to the pupil, 
let it be illustrated with balls on the numeral frame, 
calling four balls a group, and each ball one-fourth of a 
group ; or it may also be illustrated with grains of corn 
or other objects. 

In the written process the inversion of the divisor 
may be illustrated as the pupil proceeds to explain or 
solve orally. Thus, in the question, "How often is -| 
contained in 4?" the solution and the written process 
would run as follows : " 1 is contained in 4, 4 times ; 
\ is contained 3 times as often as 1, or 3X4 times; 
and -| is contained only \ as often as |-, or \ of 3 X 4 
times, which is f of 4 times, or -| X 4." 

The teacher should show the class that this is the same 
as inverting the divisor and multiplying. This method 
of solving questions in Division of Fractions greatly sim- 
plifies the process, and in practice it is all that is neces- 
sary. Of course the pupils should have a sufficient 
number of exercises to lead them to see clearly the 
reason for inverting the divisor, though this is not 
necessary in their first study of fractions. 

3. To Divide a Fraction by a Fraction. — The easiest 



298 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

plan to teach this process is first to require pupils to re- 
duce both fractions to a common denominator, and then 
simply divide the numerators. Easy questions should 
be given at first, and these should be continued until 
the pupils can perform the solution readily by the oral 
method. The questions may then be made more difficult 
gradually, and finally, when the written solution is pre- 
ferred, the pupil may be permitted to solve the problems 
by inverting the divisor and proceeding as in the pre- 
ceding case. 

4. The Reduction of Complex Fractions. — This may be 
regarded as one of the forms of division of fractions. The 
number or fraction in the numerator may be regarded as 
the dividend, and the number or fraction in the denom- 
inator may be regarded as the divisor. All fractions 
may be regarded as indicated divisions. 

Decimal Fractions. 

Pupils should be taught that Decimal Fractions do 
not differ from Common Fractions whose denominator 
is some power of 10, except that for the sake of con- 
venience they are written without the denominator ex- 
pressed, as it is in common fractions. For instance, 
seven-tenths or fifteen-thousandths may be expressed either 

as - -. q , "TITO 0? ^^* ^^ ? .U-LO. 

The distinction between Decimal Fractions and Deci- 
mals should be taught. 

Pupils should have plenty of exercises in both read- 
ing and writing decimals. 

Pupils should be taught the principles governing the 
writing of decimals, showing the effect of removing the 
decimal-point either to the right or to the left; also, the 



ARITHMETIC. 299 

effect of placing a cipher either to the right or to the 
left of the decimal, or removing one from either place. 

No difficulties arise in either Addition or Subtraction of 
Decimals; and the only important thing to keep in mind 
is that the decimal-points in either process shall be placed 
in the same perpendicular column. 

In Multiplication and Division of Decimals it is neces- 
sary to teach carefully the rule for pointing off the result 
in either process. It is necessary to teach also that when 
the number of figures in the product is less than the 
number of decimal places in the two factors, as many 
ciphers must be prefixed to the result as may be ne- 
cessary to make the number of decimal places in the 
product equal the number in both factors. Teach also 
that if the number of decimal places in the divisor 
exceed the number in the dividend, we must first annex 
enough ciphers to the dividend to make the number of 
places equal to the number in the divisor. Should the 
pupils fail to understand the reasons for these principles, 
they may be explained readily by changing the decimals 
to common fractions. 

Denominate Numbers. 

No department of arithmetic can be made more inter- 
esting than Denominate Numbers, if properly taught. 
Care must be taken, however, in the very beginning 
that the subject be made practical. 

Measurements. — Let the first lessons particularly be of 
such a nature that the pupil may see the practical appli- 
cation of what he studies. If money be the first topic 
discussed, but little difficulty need be experienced in 
securing sufficient coins with which to illustrate the com- 



300 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

parative values. In discussing weight, if it be impossible 
to have a set of weights for the school, it may at least be 
possible to borrow a pair of scales and a set of weights 
for a day or two, until pupils see the practical value of 
the table. When discussing linear measure use a rule 
and a yardstick, and let the pupils make actual measure- 
ments for themselves. It will be found interesting to have 
them compare and judge of measurements sometimes be- 
fore applying the actual test to determine accurately. 

Do not let pupils rest satisfied with committing the 
tables, rules, and definitions to memory. These are im- 
portant, but it is more important that the learner should 
understand their application. When pupils study ad- 
vanced arithmetic let them read something on the his- 
tory of the various rules used in the different tables, also 
with reference to the origin of the various units, as the 
yard, etc. 

Longitude and Time. 

In order to teach Longitude and Time properly it is 
necessary that the pupils should first be taught what 
longitude is, and its relation to time. When the pupil 
once learns the fact that any point on the earth's surface 
passes through the circumference of a circle, or 360°, in 
a day of twenty-four hours, he will readily see that it 
passes through ^ of 360°, or 15°, in an hour of time. 
He sees also that there is a difference of one hour in 
time for every 15° of longitude, and from this he can, 
without help, readily construct the table of Longitude 
and Time. If the pupil is able to construct the table, 
he will readily understand the conditions of all ordinary 
problems in this topic; and all that is further necessary 
is that the teacher should give numerous illustrations and 



ARITHMETIC. 301 

numerous practical problems both for oral and for written 
solution. 

Ratio and Proportion. 

No difficulties present themselves in the teaching of 
either Ratio or Proportion, except in what is known as 
Compound Proportion. All problems in compound pro- 
portion may be solved by analysis, and it would probably 
be best for 'classes to solve them in this way in studying 
the subject for the first time. 

In presenting Compound Proportion much the easiest 
way of teaching it is to combine analysis with the proper 
statement. The simplest method of arriving at the proper 
statement is as follows: 

1. Place for the third term that number which is of the 
same kind as the answer. 

2. Arrange the couplets as in Simple Proportion, making 
all divisions antecedents, and all multipliers consequents, in 
these couplets. 

The following solution and analysis will illustrate 
more fully : 

Problem. — If it cost a family of 5 persons $135 for 
6 weeks' board, how much would it cost a family of 7 
persons at the same rate for 3 weeks' board? 

5 persons 7 persons Analysis. — The required 

_ : : : $1<>5' : x - answer is dollars ; hence 

6 weeks 3 weeks . , „ x , ,. . , A 

we place tor the third term 

$135. Since the means are known, and but one of the ex- 
tremes, the members of the means are all multipliers, and the 
members of the extremes all divisors. If the board of 5 persons 
cost $135, the board of 1 person at the same rate would cost J as 
much ; 5 is therefore a divisor, or member of the first term, and 
the corresponding number of persons, 7, is therefore a multi- 
plier, or member of the second term. If the board of 7 persons 



302 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

for 6 weeks cost a certain sum, for 1 week it cost J as much ; 6 
is therefore a divisor, or member of the first term, and the cor- 
responding number of weeks, 3, is a multiplier, or member of 
the second term. 

Taking the product of the means and dividing by the given 
extreme, we have for the other extreme $94.50, the correct result. 

Percentage. 

Percentage is the name applied to computations in 
which 100 is the unit of measure. 

Pupils should be taught as soon as they begin the 
study of Percentage that any per cent, of anything 
means so many hundredths of it; that is, that 1 per 
cent, is yj-g-, and that 7 per cent, is y-^-, and so on. 

They should be taught also that per cent, may be 
expressed in several ways, as follows : 

1. By a decimal ; as, .17 ; 

2. By a common fraction ; as, -£fe ; 

3. By the term per cent.) as, 17 per cent.; 

4. By the symbol ; as, 17%. 

Care should be taken in teaching percentage to teach 
the solutions of the three general problems : 

1. To find any per cent of a given number ; 

2. To find what per cent, one number is of another ; 

3. To find a number when some per cent is given. 

Let the pupil master these points thoroughly, and he 
will have little trouble in making an application of 
percentage. 

The problems in Loss and Gain will probably prove 
the most vexatious, but let the pupil keep in his mind 
constantly the question, "Per cent, of what?" and 
apply it to every question not wholly clear to him, and 
most of the difficulty will vanish. 



ARITHMETIC. 303 

In Partial Payments show the pupil that each problem 
for solution is simply a series of problems in simple 
interest, and that if each of these be solved correctly the 
general problem will give but little trouble. 

In Stocks, etc. teach that dividends, assessments, and 
commissions are all calculated on the par value. 

In Bank Discount show that this is the same as sim- 
ple interest for three days more than is specified in 
the note; also, that most banks add four days instead 
of three. 

General Suggestions on Teaching Arithmetic. 

1. In teaching arithmetic keep in mind the fact that 
many pupils leave school before completing any textbook 
on that study. Let these study mostly that which will 
be of practical value to them in after-life. 

2. Illustrate all primary operations by means of 
objects as far as possible. The idea of ten l's, or a ten, 
can be taught best by putting ten objects together and 
calling the collection a ten. Objects are much superior 
to pictures as a means of illustration. 

3. Use the numeral frame freely at first, even if you 
must purchase one for yourself. It is a most useful 
piece of school-apparatus. 

4. Give pupils copious exercises in counting both 
forward and backward, not only by i's, but also by 
combinations of ^s, 3's, and so on up to 10's, or even 
i#\s. This will assist them greatly in future rapid 
calculation. . 

5. Give special attention to the addition of columns — 
first by single figures, then by combinations. Practice 
in addition enters more largely into business-life than 



304 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

probably any other process of arithmetic. Accuracy 
here is a prime necessity. 

6. Add a large number of practical problems to the 
textbook exercises given under each topic. 

7. Give thorough drill on the fundamental rules ; all' 
others are based on these. 

8. Require pupils to originate problems embracing the 
principles they have studied ; this will not only give 
them practice, but it will also show that they have 
thought for themselves and not merely memorized the 
rules and " worked for the answer." 

9. Give your pupils combination problems — that is, 
problems which combine the operations of several rules 
in their solution ; these will do much to evolve thought 
on the part of the pupil. Since the pupil cannot solve 
these problems by any one rule, he is compelled to 
" think out " his own method of solution. 

10. Select problems frequently from the actual busi- 
ness-operations of life, and encourage the pupils to 
think for themselves and give original solutions for 
these. 

11. See that the work in written arithmetic, whether 
on the slate or on the blackboard, is neat and put in 
proper order; also, that pupils give all their solutions, 
analyses, and explanations, whether oral or written, in 
grammatical language. 

12. Do not solve problems for your pupils if they are 
able to help themselves. If help is needed, let it be 
given indirectly in the shape of hints and suggestions, 
or by pointing out the mistake for the pupil and allow- 
ing him to make his own correction. Do not, however, 
waste time by permitting pupils to struggle for days in 



ARITHMETIC. 305 

their efforts to solve a problem which is beyond their 
capacity. 

13. Teach oral and written arithmetic together, letting 
the pupils solve the easier problems and those which 
lead to the principles to be established by the oral pro- 
cess, and the more difficult and complicated problems by 
the written process. 

14. Require frequent mental solutions, allowing pupils 
a specified time to solve a given problem silently, and at 
the end of the allotted time either announce the result 
at a given signal from the teacher or write it on their 
slates. 

15. As a means of giving work to all, and also of 
securing variety, permit part of the class to solve prob- 
lems orally while others write their solutions on the 
blackboard. Much time may be economized in this 
way. The principles and solutions, being given by both 
methods in the same recitation, will be more fully com- 
prehended and more definitely and clearly understood. 

16. Permit pupils to derive and formulate their own 
rules whenever possible ; this will give them valuable 
training in both language-culture and reasoning. 

17. Encourage original solutions on the part of your 
pupils. Many problems admit of several forms of solu- 
tion. If a pupil can give a solution of his own, and it 
be accepted by the teacher as correct, it will greatly en- 
courage the learner to think for himself. 

18. Make haste slowly. Let pupils understand as 
thoroughly as possible each principle and each process 
before they attempt to master the next in order. 

19. Do not make the mistake of supposing that the 
pupil ought to be able to solve every problem the first 



306 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

time he studies the arithmetic. See that he knows how 
to perform the mechanical processes and understands as 
far as possible the principles. Reserve the puzzles for 
later work ; the pupil will not lose much if he never 
solves them. 

20. Do not make a hobby of either oral or written 
arithmetic ; both are important, and each deserves its 
due share of attention. 

21. Be careful not to permit your pupils to fall into 
the habit of solving problems by rule. This sort of 
study is valueless, and should not be permitted. Pupils 
should be led to derive rules from solutions, rather than 
apply rules to solutions. 

22. Require pupils to give explanations of their 
written work. It is a dangerous practice to permit 
pupils to place solutions on the blackboard without ex- 
plaining orally the process of solution. Pupils soon fall 
into the habit of copying written work, either done at 
their seats preparatory to recitation or done at home by 
persons not members of the class. 

23. Require those not engaged in other work to watch 
the explanation of each problem carefully, and then 
make proper criticisms when the explanation has been 
concluded. 

24. Problems should be so arranged that no special 
form of solution may be made to apply to all of them. 

25. Let beginners give special attention to learning 
the mechanical process of solution first. Solve a ques- 
tion for them on the blackboard, then another, and so 
on, having them watch you closely until they are able 
to perform the process for themselves. 

26. The learning of the multiplication table, together 



ARITHMETIC. 307 

with the tables of the weights and measures, however 
we may introduce the subject by object-lessons, is a piece 
of practice for the memory, and were it even desirable 
there is no way of escaping the hard work. 

27. Give pupils an opportunity to make actual appli- 
cation of measurements. In the absence of a yardstick 
let them mark a lath into feet and inches, and by means 
of this determine the height and length of desks, 
benches, the blackboard, the doors, etc. If no set of 
weights can be secured, let paper or muslin bags be filled 
with sand or corn, representing the ounce, the pound, the 
quarter-pound, etc. 

28. Do not try to have pupils understand demon- 
strations which are beyond their comprehension. Post- 
pone the more difficult parts of arithmetic until the 
reasoning powers of your pupils are more fully de- 
veloped. 

29. See that pupils have specially thorough drills on 
the four fundamental rules, fractions, and percentage. 
These enter extensively into the practical business-mat- 
ters of life, and need most attention. 

30. In general, omit all complicated problems and 
improbable examples until the pupil has nothing else 
to learn. Some of these may give valuable mental 
training, but many of them take up valuable time that 
might be spent more profitably in other work. 

31. If you have reason to believe that pupils have had 
unnecessary help in the preparation of their arithmetic- 
lessons, give them problems taken from other textbooks 
or some constructed by yourself, so as to involve the 
principles of the lesson. 

32. Give full credit for industry and originality in 



308 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

the solutions. Some think more rapidly than others in 
mathematics, because more talented in that direction. 

33. Use the blackboard to explain to pupils. Often 
many in the class have the same difficulty, and you thus 
economize time by explaining the same question to all. 

34. Bring yourself down to the level of your pupils 
in making your explanations. Often the best mathe- 
maticians fail to teach beginners well, because what to 
them seems entirely clear and needs no explanation is 
dark and difficult to the pupil. Do not take for 
granted that pupils understand ; see that they under- 
stand. 

35. When you make an explanation for the pupil let 
him repeat it to you to show that he understands it. It 
is often the case that when a pupil is asked if he under- 
stands he replies " Yes " when he should have said "No." 
He does this either because he does not like to put the 
teacher to further trouble, or because he dislikes to seem 
stupid. 

36. Let pupils prepare business-problems out of class, 
and place them in the hands of the teacher to be referred 
to other pupils for solution and explanation. 

37. In your reviews give short problems that involve 
principles. This will save time, and be quite as valuable 
a test of the learner's accuracy as would more compli- 
cated problems requiring a longer solution. 

38. Bear in mind that for many pupils arithmetic 
is a very difficult study, and that many who seem ab- 
solutely stupid in this branch may be very brilliant in 
others. 

39. Do not permit the study of arithmetic to monop- 
olize more than its due share of time and attention. Other 



ARITHMETIC. 309 

studies are quite as important, both for their disciplinary 
value and for their practical worth in after life. 

40. In the solution of problems, particularly in oral 
arithmetic, be careful not to require unnecessary verb- 
iage. It may be logical to state the problem first, then 
solve it, and lastly give the conclusion, with a great 
flourish of " Therefore," etc., but much time might be 
saved when this form is once learned by giving the 
solution only. 

41. In the study of different topics see that the sub- 
ject of arithmetic is made as practical as possible. The 
objects in teaching arithmetic are both mental discipline 
and the practical knowledge which it affords for busi- 
ness-life. 

42. See that those who study the applications are able 
to write the usual business-forms, including checks, re- 
ceipts, drafts, notes of all kinds, etc. 

43. Procure from bankers or business-men blank forms 
of business-papers, such as checks, drafts, and notes, and 
place these in the hands of your pupils for their in- 
spection. 

44. Let pupils reason for themselves, and not only 
state what they do, but also why they do it. Let them 
thus prove that they understand the reason for every 
operation they perform and every step of the process. 

45. Show r that many abbreviated processes and also 
methods of doing work, as beginning at the right to 
add, are simply matters of convenience. 

46. If you apprehend that pupils w T ill have any seri- 
ous difficulty in studying a topic, give them judicious 
help by showing them in advance how they may study 
the subject to the best advantage. 



CHAPTER III. 

Algebra. 

The methods of teaching Algebra do not, in general, 
differ from those of teaching Arithmetic, and the discus- 
sion of the topic need not, therefore, be extended to any 
great length. It is the purpose here to dwell briefly only 
on those points which present more or less difficulty in the 
method of presentation. 

By many writers Algebra has been considered and 
called General Arithmetic. It deals largely with sym- 
bols where arithmetic employs words, but the principles 
of the two sciences do not differ, except that those of 
algebra are general in their application and more ex- 
tended than are those of arithmetic. 

Algebra may be taught profitably before the pupil has 
thoroughly mastered the subject of arithmetic. Indeed, 
it will be found that in the higher departments of arith- 
metic each science may be made to assist the other, and 
often a principle in arithmetic may be aptly stated and 
explained by the assistance of algebraic characters. 

Symbols. — The pupil must learn the use of algebraic 
symbols at an early stage. This can be taught best 
in connection with numbers, and then the change be 
made to letters. Thus the signs +, — , X, -*-, having 
the same force in algebra as in arithmetic, may be read- 
ily applied. Others, as used in the following expressions, 

310 



ALGEBRA. 311 



]/25 = 5, 5 2 = 25, 6 > 4, 4 < 6, may be learned as neces- 
sity requires ; and when once learned in connection with 
numbers, the transition to letters will be readily under- 
stood. The pupils will, for instance, readily compre- 
hend that a + a = 2a, or that 4 a — 2a = 2a, and so on. 

Equations. — The equation in algebra is a matter of 
prime importance. It is therefore necessary that the 
pupil be taught as early as possible its use, and how 
to express quantities between which the equality sign 
is placed. 

First Steps. — The first problems in algebra may be 
made to consist of such as can be solved by arithmetic. 
In making the transition from one science to the other 
the pupil will readily see how much more simple is the 
algebraic than the arithmetical solution. Thus, in the 
problem, "3 times John's age plus 4 times his age 
equals 56 years : what is his age ?" the arithmetical 
solution would be as follows: "3 times John's age plus 
4 times his age, or 7 times his age, equals 56 years; hence 
his age is \ of 56 years, or 8 years." 

By algebra the solution becomes much more simple. 
Letting x represent John's age, we have 

3x + 4x = 56 ; 
7^=56; 
x=8. 

Oral Solutions. — Problems may be given which the 
pupils should be required to solve orally. Indeed, in 
this respect the method of teaching need not differ 
from that of arithmetic. The oral process of solution 
may precede the written in illustrating the principle, 
and, as the problems become more difficult, the written 



312 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

method of solution maybe substituted for the oral. The 
plan of solving algebraic questions orally, even where the 
textbook gives them for written solution, may be followed 
to great advantage. 

Mental Solutions. — The teacher will often be able to 
create great interest by requiring strictly mental solu- 
tions, in which the pupil performs the entire operation 
mentally and then announces simply the result. This 
class of solutions should be required even in the intro- 
ductory work of algebra. 

Two plans may be used in conducting a recitation. 
First, the pupils may sit with books open, and as they 
read over each problem they may announce the result, 
or the teacher may write a series of problems on the 
blackboard, and the pupils may, when called upon, 
announce the result. This plan is, however, open to 
serious objection, for the reason that pupils, in preparing 
the lesson at the seats, are sometimes apt to* place the 
answer after each problem, and when they come to class 
simply announce these answers as they have them written 
down. The objection may be met by having these 
mental exercises as a preliminary drill before the pupil 
has had an opportunity to prepare them. 

The second plan is that usually pursued in recitations 
in oral arithmetic. The teacher may read the problem 
from the book, and require all the class to give close 
attention. After sufficient time has elapsed, he may ask 
those who have solved the problem to raise their hands, 
and then call upon some one to announce the result. 
This plan holds the attention of the entire class, and is 
productive of the best results. 

Arithmetical Problems. — The transition from arithmetic 



ALGEBRA. 313 

to algebra may be made quite easy by having pupils first 
solve suitable problems by the arithmetical process, and 
then, substituting symbols for words, employ substantially 
the same process algebraically. Many of the simpler ex- 
ercises given for oral recitation in arithmetic may be used 
in this way. These may be placed as an introduction to 
algebra, and pupils may thus be led to see more readily 
the connection between the two subjects ; and their in- 
terest will be aroused at once. 

Algebraic Expression. — Before dealing with the special 
rules of algebra, pupils must be taught to express them- 
selves algebraically. Thus, they should be taught that 
x and x, or x -f x, may be written 2x ; also that 2 times 
x is the same as 2x. They may be taught also that a 
times x, a X x, may be written simply ax, and that x X x 
may be written x 2 , or aXaXa may be written a 3 ; in 
which expressions the small figure is called an exponent, 
and shows how many times the letter is taken as a 
factor. 

Of course, when these points are explained to the 
pupil he should have abundant exercise in changing 
one form of expression to another ; and these exercises 
should continue until the child writes the various ex- 
pressions readily and correctly. 

At this point the child may be taught also to write 

fractional expressions ; as - of x = ^x, or - ; - of x = 

3 Sx 

-x, or — , etc. ; also that any two quantities between 

which the equality-mark (==) is placed constitute an equa- 
tion, as the expressions x = 4, 2x + 3x = 20, - = - + 1. 



314 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

Most works on algebra give the pupil a number of 
appropriate examples on which he may have exercise 
of the nature here mentioned ; but to these the teacher 
should add many more, so as to prevent any such prep- 
aration of the lesson as is not intelligent, and at the 
same time develop thought in the mind of the learner. 

Numerical Values. — In connection with the lessons in 
algebraic expression there may be given such exercises 
as require the pupil to substitute values. Thus, when 
the pupil has learned to write the expressions let him be 
required to substitute figures for letters. Questions like 
the following will furnish him valuable exercise : " If 
a = 3, what is the value of a + a + a? " " If a = 3 and 
6 — 4, what is the value of the expression 2a + 36 ? " 
"If a— 2 and 6 = 3, what is the value of a + 2a6?" 
These problems should be graded in difficulty, so that 
the pupil may not become confused or discouraged in 
the beginning, and labor ever after under the delusion 
that algebra is a very difficult study. 

Collecting. — In the early part of the work the pupil 
should be drilled in the process of collecting. Thus, he 
should be taught that a + a + a, or 3a ? s, may be better 
expressed as 3a, and that the expression a + a + 6 + a + 
6 + 6 + a, which consists of 4a ? s and 36's, may be written 
better 4a + 36. 

Negative Quantity. — At this point also should be 
taught the meaning and use of the negative quantity. 
This can be done best by giving several practical ex- 
amples, similar to the following : " A boy buys 2 oranges 
for 10 cents, but when he comes to pay for them he finds 
he has but 7 cents in his purse. Since he cannot take 
10 cents from 7 cents, he pays 7 cents, and still owes 3 



ALGEBRA. 315 

cents. His financial condition may be expressed by — 3 
cents." 

Similar examples may be taken to illustrate to the 
pupil that when we take a larger number from a small- 
er in algebra, the "result is a negative quantity, and its 
value is expressed by placing the minus-sign (— ) before 
it. 

At this point he should have ample exercises in col- 
lecting where both positive and negative quantities occur 
in the same example. Something similar to the follow- 
ing would be useful : " A boy rows up stream 12 yards, 
then drifts down 15 yards; he again rows up 20 yards, 
and drifts back 12 yards ; how much progress has he 
made?" Many similar questions should be given, some 
furnishing positive results and others negative, so that 
the pupil may gain a clear notion of both positive and 
negative quantities. The drill will be valuable also in 
giving the pupil a clearer understanding of the process 
of addition when both positive and negative quantities 
occur in the same column. 

Addition. — But little difficulty will arise in addition 
where all the signs are either + or -— , as it is necessary 
simply to add the columns and place before the result 
the same sign as precedes all the quantities to be added. 
When, however, the signs differ, it is best to teach at 
first simply the mechanical process, and then the require- 
ment that the positive and the negative quantities shall 
be added separately, their difference be taken, and that 
this result shall be prefaced by the sign which is found 
before the greater of the two sums. After the pupils 
have once learned to perform the process of addition 



316 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

readily, they should then be taught by means of simple 
examples the reason for placing the sign. 

It may be well in illustrating this point to take a 
practical problem, something similar to the following : 
"A man earns on Monday $10, on Tuesday $3; on 
Wednesday he loses $12; on Thursday he earns $25; 
on Friday he loses $6 ; and on Saturday he loses $10 
more ; how much does he save in the week ? " This can 
be written for the pupils in arithmetical form : $10 + $3 
-$12 + $25- $6 -$10= $10, or in algebraic form, 
substituting x for $, as follows : 

10a 

3x 

— 12a: 
25# 

— Gx 

— 10a? 

3&e-28#=10# 

Similar examples should be given in which the sum 
of negative quantities exceeds that of the positive. The 
transition from these concrete problems will be found 
quite easy. 

Subtraction. — The chief difficulty in algebraic subtrac- 
tion is to show the child why the sign of the subtrahend 
is changed. In order to make this clear to the mind of 
the learner it is best to limit the first questions to posi- 
tive quantities in both minuend and subtrahend. The 
learner will have little difficulty in understanding that 
the expressions, u 4 books subtracted from 6 books/' " 6 
books less 4 books/' and "6 books minus 4 books/' are 



ALGEBRA. 317 

substantially the same. In a similar way he may be led 
to see that 4x from 6x, 6x less 4x, and Qx — 4x are the 
same. The problems may now be written in a different 
form; as, 

From 6 boys, 6x 

Subtract 4 boys, 4x 

2 boys. 2x 

Suppose that the pupil has been taught the process of 
addition thoroughly where different signs occur, he will 
have little difficulty in understanding that the expression 
6x — 2x = 4x may be written — 

6x 
— 2a? 

4x 

This form shows him the problem in subtraction changed 
to one in addition ; and he has only to perform the addition 
in order to verify the result obtained by the oral solution 
in subtraction. 

The next point is to show to the learner that the sign 
is not necessarily really changed, but that we may " think 
of it" or "conceive it" as changed, and proceed as in 
addition. It will not be a difficult task, if the pupil 
have plenty of oral exercises, to show him that the re- 
sult of thinking of a minus sign as changed makes it 
a plus sign, or that a plus sign under similar circum- 
stances becomes a minus sign, and that whichever num- 
ber is the larger, the minuend or the subtrahend, the 
sign of that number gives the sign to the result. 

The teacher should dwell on this matter of changing 
the sign of the subtrahend until there can be no pos- 
sibility of mistake. It is safe to say that more than 



318 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

one-half the errors in algebraic work result from mis- 
takes made on this point. 

Transposition. — It frequently occurs in the solution 
of equations that letters occur in both members of the 
equation ; as, 

or 6x — 4= 2x + 8. 

In such cases it is necessary that the letters should all be 
placed in one member of the equation and the numbers in 
the other. In the first equation above, 6x + 3 = 5x + 5, 
we may get rid of the 3 by subtracting 3 from each side 
of the equation, which will then stand 

*6x= 5x + 5 — 3. 

We may also get rid of the 5x in the second member by 

subtracting 5x from each member; the equation would 

then stand 

6x — 5x — 5 — 3 ; 

but this form is the same as if we had changed the sign 
of 5x and of 3, and removed each from one member of 
of the equation to the other. The pupil will readily see 
that all that is necessary in changing a quantity from one 
member of an equation to the other is to change the sign 
of the quantity as it is removed from one side of the 
equality-sign to the other. This process of changing 
a quantity from one side of an equation to the other is 
called Transposition. 

The importance of transposing members of an equation 
should be explained to the pupil, and he should then have 
sufficient practice in transposition to make him thoroughly 
familiar with the process and expert in the operation. Part 



ALGEBRA. 319 

of these exercises should be for oral practice and part for 
written. 

Forming Equations. — One of the most serious difficul- 
ties with which the student in algebra meets is that of 
forming equations; even many who are able to solve 
equations readily when once constructed find no little 
difficulty in constructing equations for themselves from 
the reading-problems with which they meet. 

It is important that the first exercises in forming 
equations be very simple, and that they increase in dif- 
ficulty very gradually. Let some of the first examples 
be similar to the following: "If Sx + 2 is 4 more than x, 
what is the proper equation ?" " If 2x — 6 is 2 less than 
3x, what is the proper equation?" The next series of 
questions may be somewhat as follows : " If 3 times a 
number + 2 equals once the same number + 4, what is 
the equation and what is the number?" 

It will be found profitable, as soon as reading-prob- 
lems of any nature are given for solution, for the class 
to proceed first to construct the proper equations. A 
large. proportion of students find this the first difficulty 
with which they have to contend, and it is one which 
sometimes gives them more or less trouble throughout 
their whole study of the science. It is therefore recom- 
mended that where pupils are not able to construct the 
proper equation, the teacher lead them by judicious 
questions to construct the equations of a number of 
similar problems before they begin the solution of any 
in a lesson. It will be found profitable also to have 
them sometimes place on their slates or on the black- 
board the proper equations for all the problems of a 
lesson. This will prove a valuable exercise in training 



320 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

the judgment and the understanding in general. The 
exercises may be varied by having one pupil construct 
the proper equations in a problem, and then selecting 
some one else to solve the equations. 

Multiplication. — The first difficulty that the pupil is 
likely to encounter in multiplication is that the product 
of like signs produces positive quantities, or plus, while 
the product of unlike signs produces negative quantities, 
or minus. 

Multiplying two quantities, each having the plus sign, 
gives rise to no difficulty. 

Multiplying a negative quantity by a positive, as — 6a? 
multiplied by 3, is readily explained by showing that 

— Gx 

— Gx 

— Gx 

— 18a? 

is the same as 3 X — Gx = — 18a?. 

Multiplying a positive quantity by a negative, as Ax 
multiplied by — 3, may be explained by showing that 
4 X — 3 is the same as— 3X4 = — 12, and this quantity 
multiplied by x = — 12a?, or 4a? X — 3 = — 12a?. 

In a similar manner it may be shown that in the mul- 
tiplication of two negative quantities, as — 7 X — 3, the 
minus-sign before the multiplier 7 means that 7 times 
the multiplicand is to be subtracted from something. In 
this case 7 X — 3 = — 21. If this be subtracted, its 
sign must be changed; hence the product of — 7 and 
-3 is +21. 

The pupil, having learned previously that the expo- 



ALGEBRA. 321 

nent indicates the number of times a letter or figure is 
used as a factor, will have little difficulty in understand- 
ing operations similar to the following: 

aXaXaXbXaXaXb = a 5 b 2 . 
a 2 XaXaXb*Xb = a 4 b\ 
a 2 Xa s XbXb 3 Xc = a b ¥c. 

To prove himself right, let him resolve given numbers 
to factors ; as. 

a? = a X a X a. 

a 2 tfc = aXaXbXbXbXbXc. 

Multiplication of Polynomials need not be specially 
explained here, as it presents no difficulties not already 
met with in multiplication of monomials. 

Pupils should memorize the principle that the product 
of quantities having like signs is plus, and the product 
of those having unlike signs is minus. It will prove 
convenient to remember this and have it at command at 
all times. 

Division. — In division the chief thing is to explain to 
the pupil the division of coefficients first. This will 
present no serious difficulty. Should he fail to under- 
stand the subtraction of exponents, as 6x 5 -v- 2x 2 — 3a; 3 , 
it would be best to factor the literal part of the expres- 

sion thus, Qxxxxx -~ 2xx ; or thus, ■ = 3xxx — 3ar\ 

LXX 

when he will readily understand that, division being the 
reverse of multiplication, exponents are subtracted where 
in multiplication they are added. 

He may be taught also that in division the quotient 

21 



322 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

of quantities having like signs is plus (+), or positive, 
while that of quantities having unlike signs is minus 
(— ), or negative. This may be illustrated to the pupils 
as in the case of multiplication, or rather by reversing 
the process, as follows: 

Since a Xb = ab, ab -+- b = a. 
Since a X — b = — ab, — ab -r- a = — 6. 
Since — a X b = — ab, — ab -+- b = — a. 
Since — a X — b = ab, ab h a = — 6. 

Fractions. — Fractions in algebra may be regarded as 
indicated divisions; they therefore present no difficul- 
ties except such as are met with in division, and the 
method of teaching needs but little further discussion 
here. 

Clearing of Fractions. — Pupils should be taught by 

means of very simple examples, as — -| — = 5, to clear 

equations of fractions. The transition from arith- 
metical numbers to algebraic can be made readily in 
the above example. Thus, ^ the cost of a hat plus ^ 
of the cost equals $5. The pupil has no difficulty in 
determining that -f of the cost equals $5, and that the 
total cost is 6 dollars. 

Substituting the algebraic form, we have — 

2^3 
3# + 2a? = 30; 
5a? = 30 ; 
x=.Q. 

Factoring. — In order to understand Factoring, and be 
able to resolve polynomials readily into factors, pupils 



ALGEBRA. 323 

must understand thoroughly and have constantly at 
command the theorems which show the result of 

1. The square of the sum of two quantities^ 

2. The square of the difference of two quantities ; 

3. The product of the sum and difference of two 
quantities. 

The exercises in illustrating these theorems and in 
resolving the products into their factors cannot well 
be too extended. A thorough knowledge of these 
theorems will not only save a vast amount of work, 
but it will very greatly facilitate the solution of many 
problems, by enabling the student to see at a glance 
how the work of solution may be greatly simplified. 

The following additional theorems are also important: 

1. Thai the difference of two quantities is an exact divisor 
of the difference of any like powers of those quantities ; 

2. That the sum of two quantities is an exact divisor 
of the sum of any like odd powers of those quantities. 

Factoring enters largely into the w r ork of solving 
problems, and the pupil should have frequent exercises 
not only in applying the foregoing theorems, but also in 
general factoring and in fractional division by the fac- 
toring process. 

Elimination. — In elimination it is best that pupils 
should understand clearly the three methods of elim- 
ination, and be required to solve problems readily in 
all of them, but in their subsequent practice they should 
be permitted to use that method which may prove most 
convenient for them. 

Radicals. — This topic presents serious difficulties to 



324 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

most pupils; and it will be found that the cause of 
the difficulty lies in the fact that pupils are hurried too 
rapidly in the reduction of radicals. Much time should 
be spent on this part of the subject. It should be im- 
pressed on the mind of the learner again and again that 
the quantity under the radical sign shall be divided into 
two factors, one of ivhich shall be a perfect power of the 
degree indicated by the radical. 

The teacher should begin with simple exercises, calling 
first for square factors, then cubic factors, and so on, un- 
til the pupil can readily divide numbers into factors, one 
of which shall be of the required degree. Expressions 
should then be simplified, as j/24 = j/4 X 6 = 2j/6, or 
f/M = ^8~X3 = 2^3. If the textbook does not fur- 
nish a sufficient number of examples, the teacher should 
select from other textbooks or originate a large number 
of .examples, so that pupils may understand the reduc- 
tion of radicals thoroughly. Having mastered this part 
of the subject, pupils will have little difficulty in the 
application of radicals or in solving equations contain- 
ing radicals. 

Literal Equations. — Literal equations sometimes present 
serious difficulties to the student. When such is the case, 
it is best to have him first solve several numerical equa- 
tions, and then follow with a literal equation having the 
same form. Of course, there can be no thorough knowl- 
edge of algebra without the ability to solve these literal 
equations quite as readily as the numerical. 

The Force of Signs. — Pupils should be taught that 
quantities between which a multiplication or a division 



ALGEBRA. 325 

sign occurs are to be taken together, that plus and minus 
signs are simply equivalent to conjunctions, and that e very- 
process stops and begins anew when we reach either 
a plus or a minus sign ; that is, something is either 
to be added to or subtracted from what has preceded. 

Thus, a + b X # — o -+- d is a \-bx-- , and similarly in 

a 

arithmetic: 

3 + ^x6 = 6; 

3 + i-of6 = 6; 

3 + 6-^-3=5. 

The last form becomes very simple the moment we put it 
in fractional form, as 3 + f = 5. 

Suggestions on Teaching Algebra. 

1. Do not encourage pupils to begin the study of 
algebra until they have at least a fair knowledge of 
arithmetic. 

2. Give special attention to such points as seem to 
give pupils most difficulty. 

3. Do not neglect oral and mental solutions; the 
teacher is frequently able to detect the pupils' weak- 
ness more readily by these than by the written work. 

4. Simplify the processes as much as possible for begin- 
ners, and do not discourage them by attempting to teach 
too many ways of performing an algebraic operation. 

5. See that pupils thoroughly understand the value of 
the minus-sign, and the effect produced in changing a 
number from one member of an equation to the other. 

6. Teach the various definitions as vou come to them ; do 
not discourage the pupil by attempting to have him learn 
a long list of definitions before he has any use for them. 



326 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

7. See that the pupil can apply not only every prin- 
ciple that he learns, but that he can also explain it so as 
to make it intelligible to others. 

8. Let pupils have extensive practice both in forming 
equations and in solving problems. The arithmetic may 
be used with profit in this way, and algebraic solutions 
be applied to arithmetical problems. 

9. Teach carefully the use of all signs, and show that 
what is true in algebra with reference to processes indi- 
cated by signs is true also in arithmetic. 

10. Encourage the timid and uncertain in algebra by 
giving them easy problems embracing the principles to 
be taught; select these, if necessary, from other text- 
books. Have these pupils also construct simple prob- 
lems of their own, to show that they understand the 
principles involved. 

11. Do not w T orry your pupils w T ith special solutions 
or shortened methods until they have mastered more or 
less thoroughly the matter and the methods in the text- 
book, unless you are certain that your method is more 
simple and more readily understood than that of the 
book. 9 

12. Begin the work in algebra as far as possible with 
concrete problems; these will be understood most readily, 
and they will serve as an introduction to the abstract parts 
of the science. 

13. Show the relation between algebra and arithmetic 
by making the transition from the one to the other. Show 
that in arithmetic we solve particular problems, while in 
algebra we derive general formulae which w T ill apply to 
all cases. 



CHAPTER IV. 

Geometry. 

Geometry has been variously defined as the science 
of Space, the science of Extension, and the science of 
Form. Form is either pure or real. Pure form is a 
portion of space limited in idea, but having no content. 
Real form is a portion of space occupied by matter. 
Geometry treats of pure form, but the principles of 
the science may be applied to real form. 

The science of geometry is deductive. Indeed, it is 
usually regarded as the type of all deductive sciences. 
It has for its basis axioms and fundamental truths, and 
from these are derived, by the process of reasoning, other 
truths equally important, but less general in their appli- 
cation. It begins with the general and proceeds to the 
particular, thus following strictly the course of deductive 
reasoning. 

The term geometry is derived from the Greek ge, the 
earth, and metron, a measure, and means, literally, " earth- 
measuring." Whether it was ever limited in its applica- 
tion to what we know as land-surveying or land-measuring 
is now a disputed question. It is fair to presume, however, 
that in the early stages of development this science, like 
all others, had its first growth in connection with the con- 
crete, and that its abstract principles are the outgrowth 
of practical observation. 

327 



328 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

Methods of Teaching Geometry. 

The science of geometry proper cannot be taught to 
young children. The processes of geometrical reasoning 
require minds more fully matured and more thoroughly 
disciplined than we should expect to find in the child 
of average capacity. 

Children may, however, at an early age be taught to 
distinguish the most important geometrical forms and 
name them, and they may also be taught, by means of 
objective illustration, to comprehend some of the most 
important geometrical truths and the application of these 
truths in actual measurements. 

In teaching children to distinguish between geometrical 
forms it must, however, be borne in mind that we are not 
teaching geometry, any more than teaching the various 
shapes of animals could be regarded as teaching zoology. 

Geometrical Forms. 1. Lines. — The differences in forms, 
it will be found, are most readily taught by means of 
object-lessons. We may thus not only teach the mean- 
ing of a line, but also the difference between straight and 
curved lines, and show that a broken line is simply a 
combination of straight lines. 

Positions of Lines. — Pupils should be taught to dis- 
tinguish readily the various positions of lines, and be 
able to name them, as parallel, oblique, and perpendicular, 
horizontal and vertical, converging and diverging. Their 
knowledge should then be verified by requiring them 
to draw lines in various positions as the teacher may 
dictate. 

2. Angles. — The idea of an angle may readily be taught 
bv means of lines on the blackboard or with two sticks 



GEOMETRY. 329 

or pencils in the hands of the teacher. The pupils may 
readily be made to understand that when two lines are 
drawn in different directions from a common point, the 
difference in direction of these lines is called an angle. 

The idea of a right angle is best taught by calling the 
pupil's attention to the corner of a slate or a door or the 
corners of the room, and showing that in a right angle 
the two lines which form the angle are always perpen- 
dicular to each other. When he has acquired the correct 
notion of a right angle he should be required to point out 
all the examples possible, as the corners of the blackboard, 
the corners of the floor, etc. He may next be taught the 
meaning of the word acute as being sharp, and it may be 
shown that any angle which is sharper or more pointed 
than a right angle, and which is therefore less than a 
right angle, is called an acute angle. In a similar way 
he may be taught the word obtuse as meaning blunt, and 
apply the term to all angles that are greater than right 
angles. He should then have numerous exercises in nam- 
ing angles as selected, and in drawing them as required. 

3. Surfaces. — In teaching the various surfaces the 
easiest plan is to place in the hands of pupils a certain 
number of sticks, as three, with which to form triangles ; 
four, to form quadrilaterals; five, to form pentagons ; 
and so on. After figures have thus been constructed 
with sticks, the pupils should be permitted to form re- 
quired figures of lines on the blackboard or on the slate, 
and at the same time be taught the general names tri- 
angle, quadrilateral, etc. 

Triangles. — In teaching triangles let pupils be taught 
that a triangle having a right angle is called a right- 
angled triangle, that one having an obtuse angle is called 



330 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

an obtuse-angled triangle, and that one whose angles are 
all acute is called an acute-angled triangle. 

Pupils may be taught also that triangles are named 
according to the relation of their respective sides. Thus, 
one whose three sides are equal is called an equilateral 
triangle, one having two sides equal , an isosceles triangle, 
and one whose sides are all unequal, a scalene triangle. 
Having learned the differences in triangles, either as to 
angles or as to sides, the pupils should have actual 
practice in the construction of each kind, and be re- 
quired to name the kind of triangle as. they construct 
it. 

Quadrilaterals. — In teaching the four-sided figures the 
teacher may show that those whose opposite sides are 
parallel are called 'parallelograms, those having only two 
sides parallel are called trapezoids, and those having no 
sides parallel, trapeziums. 

He may also show that parallelograms are divided 
into squares and rectangles, rhombuses and rhomboids, ex- 
plaining that rectangles have their opposite sides parallel 
and all their angles right angles, and that the square is 
a special kind of rectangle whose sides are equal. He 
should show also that a rhombus has its sides parallel 
and equal, but that its angles are not right angles, and 
that a rhomboid differs from a rhombus only in having 
unequal sides. 

Let the pupil not only name these figures, but also 
construct them, and show wherein they agree or differ. 

The Circle. — In teaching the circle lead pupils to dis- 
tinguish between the circle and its circumference. Many 
pupils confuse the two, considering the circle the circum- 
ference, instead of the space included within the circum- 



GEOMETRY. 331 

ference. The various parts of the circle may then be 
taught and named, as i*adius, diameter, chord, are, seg- 
ment, sector, quadrant, semicircle, semi-circumference. The 
division of the circumference into degrees may be ex- 
plained to pupils who have advanced sufficiently far to 
understand it. The manner of drawing a circle and the 
different parts of it may also be explained. 

Polygons. — Pupils should have practice in drawing 
and naming the kinds of polygons, as pentagons, hexa- 
gons, octagons, etc., and the meaning of such terms as 
perimeter, area, regular, and irregular, should be made 
clear as soon as pupils are prepared to understand them. 

4. Volumes. — These are most readily taught by means 
of models. Where the teacher finds it impossible to 
secure models by other means, he may substitute various 
objects that will enable him to illustrate. Thus, a 
marble or a ball may represent the sphere, a lead-pencil 
or a piece of broom-handle, a cylinder, a pencil-point, a 
cone; cubes, prisms, pyramids, etc. may be cut from 
apples, potatoes, or wood. 

Geometrical Truths. — Pupils are able to comprehend 
certain geometrical truths long before they are able to 
understand the reasoning process by which we arrive at 
the truths themselves. Many theorems are susceptible 
of concrete demonstration ; that is, they may be illus- 
trated in such a way as to be comprehended by the pupil 
without a process of reasoning. A few of these theo- 
rems are given below : 

1. If one straight line meet another straight line, the 
sum of the two adjacent angles will be equal to two right 
angles. — This may be shown by means of a piece of 



332 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

paper having a straight edge. Let an oblique slit be cut 
into the paper from any point on the straight line repre- 
sented by the edge; this will divide the paper into two 
angles. Now let a second slit be cut from the same 
point, but perpendicular to the edge; this will divide 
the surface into two right angles, but it will be seen at a 
glance that these two right angles equal the two angles 
originally cut. 

In a similar manner it may be shown that The sum of 
all the angles formed on one side of a straight line by draiv- 
ing lines from the same point is equal to two right angles ; 
also, that, since there are but two sides of a straight line, 
All the angles about a common point are equal to four right 
angles. 

2. When two straight lines intersect each other the oppo- 
site or vertical angles which they form are equal. This 
may be shown by drawing two straight lines on a piece 
of paper in such a way as to intersect. If one of the 
angles formed is cut from the paper and applied to its 
opposite, they will be found to coincide. 

3. When two triangles have two sides, and the included 
angle of one respectively equal to tvio sides and the in- 
cluded angle of the other, the two triangles are equal. — 
This may be shown by cutting one triangle from paper 
and then drawing another on paper, making the two sides 
and the included angle agree with the two sides and the 
included angle of the given triangle. Completing the 
triangle by joining the extremities of the two sides, it 
will be found that when one triangle is placed on the 
other they coincide and are equal. 

By a similar process it may be shown that When two 
angles have two angles, and the included side of the one 



GEOMETRY. 333 

equal to two angles and the included side of the other, re- 
spectively, the triangles are equal. 

4. The sum of the three angles of a plane triangle is 
equal to two right angles. — This may be shown by cut- 
ting a triangle from paper, and then cutting off two of 
the angles and placing them one on each side of the 
remaining angle. It will be found that they equal 
three angles meeting at a common point on the same 
side of a straight line, and therefore equal two right 
angles. 

5. The area of a rectangle equals the product of the 
number of units in the base multiplied by the number in 
its altitude. — This may be shown by drawing lines 
parallel both to the base and to the perpendicular, 
dividing the rectangle into unit-spaces, when it will 
be found that the number in the rectangle equals the 
number in the base multiplied by the number in the 
perpendicular. It may be shown also by first drawing 
the lines on a sheet of paper and then cutting the paper 
into squares of one unit each. 

The area of any parallelogram may be explained by 
cutting the figure out of paper, and then cutting off the 
triangular portion at one end by a line perpendicular to 
the base, and fitting it on at the other to show that everv 
parallelogram may be converted into, or is equivalent to, 
a rectangle having the same base and altitude. 

6. The area of a triangle is equal to one-half the product 
of its base and altitude. — This can be illustrated by cut- 
ting a number of parallelograms from paper and divid- 
ing them diagonally, so as to show that in every case a 
triangle is half a parallelogram ; and since the area of a 
parallelogram equals the product of its base and altitude, 



334 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

the area of a triangle, which is half a parallelogram, is 
just one half as much, or half the product of its base 
and altitude. 

7. The area of a trapezoid is equal to the sum of its two 
parallel sides multiplied by one-half the altitude. — This 
may be shown readily by cutting the trapezoid diag- 
onally, so as to show that it is equal to two triangles. 

8. The square described on the hypothenuse of a right- 
angled triangle is equal to the sum of the squares described 
on the other two sides. — This may be shown by drawing a 
right-angled triangle on paper, having the three lines each 
a certain number of inches in length, as 5, 4, 3, or 10, 8, 
6. Let a square be constructed on each of the three 
sides, and divide each of these squares into inch-squares. 
In every case it will be found that the number of inch- 
squares formed in the square described on the hypoth- 
enuse equals the number contained in the squares de- 
scribed on the other two sides. 

9. A perpendicular is the shortest line that can be drawn 
from a point to a plane. — This may be shown by attach- 
ing a string to any point overhead, and shortening it so 
that it just touches a table placed beneath when the line 
is perpendicular. The pupils will readily see that as 
soon as the string is moved out of the perpendicular the 
line is found to be too short. 

10. The volume of a parallelopipedon is equal to the 
product of its three dimensions. — This may be shown 
readily by taking any box whose inside dimensions are 
multiples of an inch and filling the box with inch-cubes. 

These concrete demonstrations will be found valuable 
not only in teaching these geometrical truths as such, 
but also frequently in enabling the student to compre- 



GEOMETRY. 335 

hend more clearly and more readily the process of rea- 
soning by which they are usually reached. 

The Science of Geometry. — When pupils have once 
reached that stage of advancement where it is thought 
they can understand and originate geometrical demon- 
strations, it is well that they should study a textbook on 
geometry. 

Definitions and Axioms. — The usual plan in textbooks 
on geometry is to present the axioms and definitions of 
the science in the beginning, and these the pupil is ex- 
pected to memorize so as to be able to apply them at any 
time. It is doubtful, however, as to the wisdom of 
requiring a pupil to memorize any definition until he 
has use for it. It seems better, therefore, that the def- 
initions at least should be scattered through the book 
in such a way as to present themselves when they are 
needed. 

When definitions in geometry are taught, the teacher 
should not be satisfied with the mere repetition of the 
words. He should see that the pupil understands the 
definition by having him illustrate it. Thus, if the 
pupil define an angle or the different kinds of angles, 
let him draw one of each on the blackboard. The 
teacher should see also that each definition is strictly 
accurate. The pupil cannot hope to improve on the 
language of most geometrical definitions, which have 
been worded by the best mathematicians of the world. 

Reasoning. — The two chief methods of reasoning in 
geometry are the Direct and the Indirect The Direct 
method of demonstration proceeds to prove a truth by 
referring to axioms, definitions, or previously-proved 



336 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

propositions, and thus reaches a conclusion which cannot 
be questioned. 

The Indirect method, known also as the reductio ad 
absurdum, proceeds by supposing that the proposition to 
be proven is not true. It establishes hypotheses which 
contradict the proposition, and reasons on these hy- 
potheses until a conclusion is reached which contradicts 
some known or established truth. The proposition is 
proved true by showing that the original hypotheses are 
false. A proposition is frequently thus proven by show- 
ing that its opposite cannot be true. Either method of 
proof may be used, but in general the direct method, 
wherever applicable, will be found the simpler of the 
two. 

Original Demonstrations. — Nothing is more conducive 
to clear geometrical reasoning than having pupils give 
demonstrations of their own. Authors of textbooks on 
geometry who have set apart a number of undemon- 
strated theorems which the pupils are required to 
demonstrate for themselves deserve very great credit. 
Many a student in the past has seemingly studied geom- 
etry for months without his teacher having discovered 
the fact that he was simply committing to memory not 
only the propositions, but also the argument. Original 
demonstrations will prevent any such practice, and at 
the same time lead the pupil to strengthen his reasoning 
powers by giving them practical exercise. 

Mensuration. — The study of geometrv mav be made 
practical and useful not only by the valuable exercise 
which it affords to the reasoning powers, but also in the 
application of its principles to the solution of practical 
problems in measurements. Mensuration should be 



GEOMETRY. 337 

taught with geometry, and every textbook on the latter 
science should have a sufficient number of problems to 
afford the student an opportunity to apply the principles 
in practice. 

Suggestions on Teaching Geometry. 

1. When pupils are called upon to recite, have them 
construct the diagrams from memory and without the 
use of a ruler. 

2. Have pupils arrange the letters of the diagrams 
differently, or substitute others for those used in the 
textbook. The use of figures instead of letters is not 
to be commended, as they frequently confuse the pupil, 
particularly if he be a beginner. 

3. Assign the work promiscuously, unless your students 
differ greatly in ability. In such case the timid or back- 
ward should be encouraged by giving them some of the 
easier demonstrations. 

4. Require the pupil when making an explanation 
or giving a demonstration to face the class as nearly as 
possible, and hold the pointer in the hand nearest the 
blackboard. 

5. Have pupils write out the important equations and 
symbols on the board, so that both the teacher and the 
pupils who listen may follow the demonstration readily. 

6. Encourage pupils to give original demonstrations; 
this will train them to think and reason for themselves. 

7. Be careful to see that pupils do not commit to mem- 
ory the steps of reasoning. The number of pupils who 
attempt to memorize the demonstration as given in the 
textbook is remarkably great. 

8. When pupils have not all an opportunity to demon- 

22 



338 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

strate orally in the same recitation, require a portion of the 
class to write out on paper the demonstrations of one or 
two theorems, so as to keep all in practice and give all 
the benefit of the reasoning. 

9. Require pupils to illustrate any axioms or defini- 
tions which you may have reason to believe they do not 
fully understand. 

10. See that every point and every demonstration is 
clearly understood before permitting a pupil to pass on 
to another. If this plan be pursued, pupils ought to 
have little trouble in comprehending and mastering the 
science. 



PHYSICAL SCIENCE. 



CHAPTER I. 
The Elements of Physical Science. 

The Physical Sciences are those which treat of the 
physical or material world. So many new facts and truths 
in this department of science are discovered from time to 
time, and the sciences themselves so interlace, that it 
seems hardly possible to suggest a classification which 
can be considered as strictly satisfactory, and no com- 
plete or satisfactory classification of them has ever yet 
been made. The following are among the most im- 
portant of the physical sciences to be taught: Natural 
History, Physiology, Natural Philosophy, Astronomy, 
Chemistry, Geology, and Geography. 

The Basis of Physical Science is physical facts and 
phenomena, and these in turn depend for their value 
upon the uniformity of Nature in her operations. By 
observation of these facts and phenomena we are enabled 
to classify them and derive the general causes which pro- 
duce them, as well as determine the laws by which they 
are governed. 

It is not meant to discuss here in detail the physical 
sciences nor the methods of teaching them, but rather to 

339 



340 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

show how the Elements of Physical Science may be 
taught to at least a limited extent in all grades of 
schools. All that the teacher of rural or ungraded 
schools can hope to do is to acquaint his pupils with 
some of the facts and principles of the most useful of 
these sciences. The discussion of Geography is given 
more at length here, because it is one of the recognized 
studies in every school-course. 

I. The Value of Physical Science. 

1. Physical Science is Valuable for the Practical Knowl- 
edge which it Affords. — The importance of a knowledge 
of the elementary facts of physical science is beginning 
to assert itself among progressive teachers everywhere, 
and the time is not distant when it will not only claim, 
but also receive, proper recognition at the hands of all 
interested in true education. As has been aptly said by 
Dr. Wickersham with reference to the usefulness of these 
sciences to man, " They treat of the light by which he 
sees, the heat by which he is warmed, the air which 
he breathes, the earth from which he draws his suste- 
nance, and the animals and plants that minister to his 
wants." They treat also of his body, the food he eats, 
and the manner in which it ministers to growth and 
strength, as w T ell as the means by which he may preserve 
both life and health. 

2. Physical Science is Valuable as a Mental Discipline. 
— It gives exercise to almost every faculty of the mind. 
It is particularly valuable for the culture which it gives 
to perception. The proper study of physical science 
requires pupils to give close and critical attention to the 
facts and phenomena investigated. The observation of 



THE ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE. 341 

these facts and phenomena is necessarily accurate, and the 
power of perception is quickened and strengthened. No 
other branch of science is so effective in giving culture 
to perception. Physical science affords valuable culture 
also to memory, to the imagination, to the understanding, 
and even to the reason. 

3. Physical Science is Valuable for the Data which it 
Affords for Inductive Reasoning. — This will readily be 
seen from the fact that in building up any physical 
science the truths are derived entirely by the process 
of induction. In learning a physical science the student 
first observes individual facts, and then seeks causes ; he 
first observes the phenomena, and then inquires into the 
general laws and principles by which these phenomena 
are governed. The process is strictly in accordance with 
the principles of induction, and the practice afforded 
proves specially valuable in giving the learner exercise 
in inductive reasoning. 

While the investigations of physical science give 
valuable training in the process of inductive reasoning, 
the plan of teaching may be either inductive or deduc- 
tive. We may, for instance, show by actual experiment 
that heat expands iron ; we may show also, by actual 
experiment, that heat expands tin, copper, zinc, and 
other known metals ; and from this we may derive and 
teach the general truth that heat expands all metals. 
This general principle is reached wholly by the process 
of induction. We may also teach the general principle, 
first, that heat expands all metals, and then apply tne 
law to the particular metals already known and to those 
hereafter discovered. We reach the principle by induc- 
tion, and make the application of it by deduction to all 



342 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

subsequent facts and phenomena that may be included 
under the general law. 

4. Physical Science is Valuable for the Training which 
it Gives in Classification. — The classifications in physical 
science are the most logical to be found in the whole 
domain of science. The arrangement into kingdoms, 
orders, genera, species, etc., as given in botany, zoology, 
and other physical sciences, is a model of perfect classi- 
fication. No other sciences afford such valuable training 
to those powers of the mind which classify and generalize, 
and thus reach and establish general laws and principles. 

5. Physical Science is Valuable in Counteracting the 
Dogmatic Tendency of Deductive Science. — The tendency 
of deductive science is to make thinkers dogmatic and 
arbitrary. The general principle having been established 
and promulgated, all facts must be made to conform to the 
law. Inductive reasoning, on the other hand, tends to 
make the thinker patient in his investigation of truth. 
He soon learns that hasty generalizations often lead to 
incorrect conclusions. Hypothesis after hypothesis may 
be established, only to be rejected and cast aside as it is 
found to be untrue; and so the process continues until 
some hypothesis is verified, and thus a theory is reached. 
It is said that Kepler established and rejected nineteen 
hypotheses before he discovered the theory of elliptical 
orbits. Most theories are merely verified hypotheses. 
Thus, the theory of universal gravitation, the Coper- 
nican theory of the solar system, and others, each was 
originally a hypothesis, or what La Place called a 
" great guess." 

The student of physical science observes facts, investi- 
gates patiently, often finds himself mistaken, and only 



THE ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE. 343 

through a long train of experiments and observations 
reaches the truth. He is modest in his statements, be- 
cause none know so well as he how easy it is to reach 
an incorrect conclusion unless all the facts and all the 
phenomena are closely observed and their relations to 
other facts and phenomena correctly noted. It would 
prove valuable mental discipline for every student of 
either mathematical or metaphysical science were he to 
pursue also a course of study in physical science. The 
tendency in our schools to devote the greatest portion of 
the time to mathematics might be corrected by the intro- 
duction of the elements of physical science, even if noth- 
ing more could be done than to give a short oral lesson on 
some topic once a day to the school. 

The utility of the physical sciences cannot well be ques- 
tioned. They make man acquainted not only with the 
inorganic world, with which he has to do in almost 
every calling in life, but also with the organic world, 
of which he himself is an important part. By means 
of these sciences he becomes acquainted with his own 
environment and the relation of his surroundings to 
himself. He also gains a knowledge of himself and 
his physical constitution, which is necessary not only to 
preserve health, but also to prevent untimely or prema- 
ture death. Physical science enters into almost every 
calling in life. Indeed, it lies at the foundation of all 
our industries and physical advancement. 

Physical science had its origin to a great extent in the 
physical necessities of mankind. It was thus that rail- 
ways were built, canals were dug, houses were erected for 
shelter, manufactories w r ere established to give us clothing 
and furnish food and labor-saving machinery, ships and 



344 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

steamers were put on the ocean to carry and exchange 
the products of various countries; in short, viewed from 
a utilitarian standpoint, nothing has done more to amelio- 
rate the condition of man and lift him to a higher plane 
of civilization than the application of the principles of 
physical science to his daily wants. 

The facts which form the basis of physical science lie 
all around us, and we could not escape them if we would. 
They crowd upon us from every direction, demanding 
recognition ; and that is not only a faulty system of 
education, but also a pernicious one, which ignores their 
importance. The great utility of physical science to every 
member of the human family, and the fact that a knowl- 
edge of the various physical sciences is so readily acquired 
and an interest in them so easily aroused, ought to ensure 
them a warm welcome in every course of study. 

II. The Sciences to be Taught. 

In teaching physical science in the public schools 
nothing more than the elements should be attempted 
in grades below the high school. The following are 
the chief sciences whose elements may be presented in 
an interesting form by the teacher, and whose primary 
facts and principles may be made matters of observation 
for the child's own mind : Zoology, Botany, Mineralogy 
— these three being known as Natural History, which 
treats of the three kingdoms, animal, vegetable, and 
mineral — Physiology, Natural Philosophy, Astronomy, 
Chemistry, Geology. 

All of the foregoing branches are important in train- 
ing pupils to habits of observation and reflection, but 
some of them are specially important in their bearing 



THE ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE. 345 

on the practical affairs of life. Zoology, Botany, and 
Mineralogy, all furnish valuable information for the 
agriculturist. The same may be said of Chemistry, 
and to some extent of Natural Philosophy. The 
farmer who has a knowledge, of these cannot fail to 
be more successful than one who is ignorant of them. 
Natural Philosophy is important also to the mechanic, 
and his success depends to a great extent upon his 
knowledge of the leading principles and laws of this 
science. A knowledge of Physiology and Hygiene is 
indispensable to every one, no matter what his calling 
in life may be. This science concerns the individual 
physical welfare of us all, and there is no branch of 
science, physical or otherwise, that deserves so mucli 
attention or that has stronger claims to a prominent 
place in the course of study. 

III. Suggestions on Teaching the Elements of Physical 

Science. 

1. Oral Instruction. — The teaching in elementary science 
should be almost wholly oral. Everything in the nature 
of a formal recitation should be carefully avoided at first. 

2. Observation. — The child's natural method of ac- 
quiring knowledge is by using its senses. Nature pre- 
sents everywhere facts and phenomena full of interest to 
the child, and it in turn gleans knowledge by following 
the bent of its own inclination as Nature directs. The 
first work of the teacher, therefore, consists in encour- 
aging the child to observe, but he should also see that 
the child's observations are made systematically, other- 
wise there will be much misdirected effort. 

3. Expression. — " Observation/' says Pestalozzi, " is the 



346 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

absolute basis of all knowledge. The first object, then, 
in education must be to lead a child to observe with ac- 
curacy ; the second, to express with correctness the result 
of its observation." 

4. Objective Teaching. — Objective teaching embraces 
two methods of procedure — first, Perceptive Teaching, 
or that in which the object is placed before the pupils 
for them to examine and observe for themselves; and, 
secondly, Conceptive Teaching, in which impressions pre- 
viously made through perception are recalled and utilized, 
the objects not being present to the senses. A lesson on 
any object previously perceived, but not now present, 
would necessarily involve conceptive teaching. 

5. Familiar Objects. — The first instruction in physical 
science should be in connection with familiar animals, 
plants, and minerals, for the reason that the child has 
already some knowledge of these. Care must be taken, 
however, that the lessons on these be not continued so 
long as to weaken the child's interest. 

6. Pictures. — Real objects are preferable in teaching 
physical science, but where these are not procurable use 
pictures or models, or other sensible representations of 
objects. 

7. Scientific Terms. — As far as possible, the use of 
technical terms should be avoided in teaching natural 
science to beginners. The time to be scientific has not 
yet come. It is not science that the pupils need so 
much as it is the training of accurate observation of 
physical facts and phenomena. 

8. Self-Help. — Where it is possible for a pupil to dis- 
cover a fact for himself the teacher should give no help. 
This was the secret of success in much of Agassiz's teach- 



THE ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE. 347 

ing. When requested on one occasion to give some in- 
struction on insects before a teachers' institute, he went 
out and collected several hundred grasshoppers and placed 
them in the hands of the teachers, directing each person 
to examine the insect for himself. He savs : " The ex- 
animation had not been carried on long before every one 
became interested, and, instead of looking at me, looked 
at the thing. And they began to examine, and to ap- 
preciate what it was to see and see carefully." Every 
pupil should be encouraged to see for himself, and then 
give expression to his own thoughts. 

9. Definitions. — If definitions are given at all, they 
should be such only as are necessary. A few technical 
terms, as organic, inorganic, mineral, etc., must necessa- 
rily be used, and these may be defined, but the pupil 
should be led to the definition by the inductive process, 
rather than have the definition ready-w T orded for him. 

10. Questions. — The teacher may lead the pupil to 
discover many facts and peculiarities about the objects 
examined by appropriate questions judiciously put. This 
also was one of the features of Agassiz's teaching. In- 
stead of pointing out a fact, he directed the pupil to 
observe. It is also in accordance with all proper object- 
teaching^ in which the pupil, after having told what he 
knows, is led to discover new facts and additional knowl- 
edge for himself. 

11. Tangible Illustrations. — Frequently, where it is im- 
possible to bring an object before a class, a similar object 
may be used for the purpose of illustration. Thus, in 
order to explain respiration and human lungs, let the 
lungs of a sheep or a calf be brought to class to be 
examined by the pupils. In a similar manner, the 



348 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

heart, arteries, windpipe, bones, eyes, and other organs 
of a sheep or a calf may be used to illustrate objectively 
similar human organs. 

12. Experiments. — Where experiments are performed, 
let them be such as the children can readily understand. 
The pupils should also be permitted to conduct experi- 
ments for themselves. The apparatus to be used in 
these experiments need not necessarily be expensive. 
The lever can be illustrated quite as readily by means 
of a lead-pencil or a stick as with the most highly- 
polished bar of steel. All the mechanical powers may 
be illustrated and explained with apparatus that need 
cost but little. Pop -guns, bits of rubber, marbles, putty- 
blowers, strings, screws, spools, and numerous other ar- 
ticles whose home is the boy's pocket, may be made to 
illustrate laws in Natural Philosophy, and the experi- 
ments performed with these simple articles will prove 
none the less practical and valuable because of the sim- 
plicity of the apparatus. 

13. Conversational Lessons. — The exercises in element- 
ary science-teaching should be mainly conversational. 
Pupils should be permitted to ask all questions of 
possible interest relative to the objects examined, and 
where facts are not developed by the pupils the teacher 
should question, so as to direct the learner in the proper 
channel of investigation. The skillful use of questions 
is the teacher's chief means of awakening thought. 

14. Associated Facts. — Associated facts are not always 
scientifically related. Thus, the uses of animals and an- 
ecdotes concerning; them have no relation, scientificallv 
considered. Pupils should, however, be permitted to 
follow their own line of observation, and associate such 



THE ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE. 349 

facts as to them seem most interesting. The scientific 
details and outlines may be taught later. Many of the 
facts, especially those relating to Natural History, pupils 
will observe for themselves out of school. 

15. The Teacher's Preparation. — It is impossible for 
any teacher to present the subject of elementary physical 
science in any of its departments in an attractive and in- 
teresting way without being personally interested in the 
study, and without having made himself practically 
familiar with the most important parts of the science. 
Nor should he attempt to give any instruction in sci- 
ence to beginners unless he has made special preparation 
to awaken their interest in the subject. 

16. Common Phenomena. — Special attention should be 
given to such phenomena as the pupil can observe for 
himself and such as arouse a spirit of inquiry in his 
mind. Thus, the phenomena of rain, fog, dew, ice, and 
snow, the crystallization and stratification of minerals, 
the origin of springs, and the habits of animals and 
plants, should all be made subjects for his observation 
and study. 

17. School Cabinets. — Whatever the grade of the 
school, let cabinets be formed, and, if possible, let the 
objects contained in the cabinet be properly classified by 
the teacher. Encourage pupils also to add specimens to 
the school cabinet, and thus keep up the interest per- 
manently. 

18. Practical Knowledge. — "If scientific training is to 
yield its most eminent results," says Huxley, " it must, 
I repeat, be made practical." Do not be satisfied to tell 
a scientific fact to the learner; let him show for himself 
that it is true. Even let him doubt until he sees the 



350 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

proof for himself. Do not rest satisfied with showing 
him that water expands by freezing; let him fill a bottle 
with water and try the experiment for himself. Let him ' 
handle the plants, animals, and minerals, and examine 
'them, in order that his knowledge may be practical 
rather than theoretical. 

19. Encourage Curiosity. — You cannot hope to answer 
all the questions that interested pupils may be inclined 
to ask, but do not on that account repress their inquisi- 
tiveness. The more thoroughly you can arouse their 
curiosity, the more successful will 'be your teaching. 
Most scientific men are indebted for all they know of 
science to a spirit of curiosity, by which they were urged 
forward in their investigations. 

20. Textbook Knowledge. — Nowhere is mere textbook 
knowledge of so little value as in physical science. The 
pupil who merely commits to memory scientific state- 
ments and copies outlines of classification, without that 
practical information which is gained only by experi- 
ment and observation, has but a meagre knowledge of 
physical science. 

21. The Uses of Objects. — In the early steps of phys- 
ical science explain to pupils as far as possible the uses 
of objects. Thus, in Botany the uses of certain plants 
may be taught, showing that some are valuable for fur- 
nishing such beverages as coffee and tea, that some are 
valuable for clothing, others for building-materials, and 
still others for their medicinal properties or their fruits. 
In a similar manner, the uses of various animal and 
mineral products may be taught. 

22. Personal Knowledge. — In the subject of Physiology 
much practical knowledge of a personal nature may be 



THE ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL SCIENX'E. 351 

imparted in the shape of hints or suggestions on hygiene. 
The pupil will need to learn but little of anatomy ex- 
cept to show the location and the importance of the 
various bodily organs. Teaching the child the names 
of the various muscles, nerves, etc. is simply wasted 
time. Only such terms should be introduced as are 
really necessary to understand the physiology and hy- 
giene of the human system. 

A very full knowledge of the physiology of the 
human body, together with the laws of hygiene, should 
be taught. How to prevent taking cold, how to protect 
the teeth from decay, how to keep the stomach and the 
lungs in a healthy condition, how and when to bathe, 
how to tie a severed artery, how to breathe only pure 
air, how to prevent headache, and a thousand other 
equally important facts — indeed, everything that would 
tend to make our bodies healthful and beautiful — might 
be taught in an incidental way while the teacher is con- 
veying instruction on Physiology and Hygiene. 

Give practical directions for preserving health. Dis- 
cuss fully with your pupils the subjects of ventilation, 
food, sleep, rest, w r ork, play, bathing, regular habits, the 
uses and abuses of the body, until you make them real- 
ize the importance of health and lead them to form only 
such habits as are conducive to health and longevity of 
life. 

23. Classification. — One of the chief benefits to be 
derived from the study of natural science is the train- 
ing that it gives to the power of classification, which, 
however, should be the last step in the process of teach- 
ing physical science. Children should be led to see only 
the chief differences at first, and when they are prepared 



352 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

to divide objects into groups according to similarities or 
peculiarities let them use the simplest possible terms to 
indicate the basis of division. The scientific terms mav 
be taught to better advantage when the pupil is once pre- 
pared to study a textbook. 

24. Blackboard Work. — As the pupils proceed in science- 
lessons they should be required to reproduce the lessons 
on the blackboard, particularly when classifications are 
made or synopses have been previously drawn by the 
teacher. These synopses, however, should be employed 
only after the pupil has had considerable practice in ob- 
serving and examining a number of objects that are sim- 
ilar, so that he may derive his law or principle wholly 
by the process of induction. The process of classification 
is naturally objective. Pupils should be led, for instance, 
to note the chief peculiarities of various animals, then 
the peculiarities found in a number of different kinds, 
as cud-chewing in the cow, the sheep, the goat, etc. In 
this manner the teacher may lead them to classify for 
themselves and draw synopses, which they ought to be 
able to reproduce on the blackboard at any time. 

25. Enthusiasm. — In the department of Physical Science 
the enthusiastic teacher is almost certain of success. No- 
where else can so much interest be aroused as in this de- 
partment of knowledge, for nowhere else can the learner 
gain knowledge so readily through the different senses 
or appreciate so highly the knowledge he acquires. 



CHAPTER II. 
Geography. 

The term Geography is derived from the Greek ge, 
the earth, and graphein, to write. Literally, it means 
a description of the earth. It therefore includes a 
narrative not only of the various changes which have 
been produced by man, but also of those which have 
been caused by Nature. It considers not only the earth 
itself, but all that is connected with the earth. Hence in 
its true sense it includes many sciences — Botany, Zoology, 
Mineralogy, Geology, Climatology, and others. It is not 
so much a distinctive science as it is a collection of facts 
and principles belonging to various sciences. 

The usual division of this science is into Political 
Geography, or that which relates to man and the 
changes he has wrought on the earth, and Physical 
Geography, or that which relates to Nature. Various 
other terms are used at times, as Mathematical, Local, 
Historical, etc., which do not, however, represent log- 
ical divisions of the subject. For the practical purposes 
of teaching probably the best division is into Descriptive 
Geography, or that which relates the facts and describes 
the conditions, and Physical Geography, or that which 
explains the causes and accounts for the various phys- 
ical phenomena. 

23 353 



354 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

Methods of Teaching Geography. 

The two chief methods of teaching Geography are 
known as the Synthetic and the Analytic. The first of 
these begins with the geography of the home or the 
neighborhood, and proceeds gradually to the world at 
large. The second begins with the world as a whole, 
and then proceeds to the divisions, the subdivisions, etc. 
Much similar to the analytic and the synthetic method 
are the Deductive and the Inductive. The inductive begins 
with individual facts, and proceeds to general laws and 
causes, while the deductive begins with the general law T s, 
and proceeds to the individual facts. The inductive and 
the deductive method apply more directly to the teach- 
ing of Physical Geography. 

The Analytic Method. — The analytic method of teach- 
ing Geography begins with the globe as a whole. It 
divides the surface of the earth into land and water. 
It subdivides land into continents, islands, peninsulas, 
etc., and water into oceans, seas, lakes, rivers, and so on. 
It again subdivides these, as continents into grand divis- 
ions, and these again into countries, states, etc., until the 
smallest political division is reached. 

Advantages. — It is claimed by the advocates of this 
method that it has the following advantages : 

1. It enables the teacher to use the globe in the first 
stages of geographical teaching. 

2. It gives a more correct view of the relation and 
the comparative size of the different countries, divisions 
of water, etc., than can be acquired by the synthetic 
method* 



GEOGRAPHY. 355 

3. It enables the teacher to explain the causes of day 
and night, the changes of seasons, and other astronomical 
features of the science. 

4. It proceeds from wholes to parts, and thus follows 
the general law of acquisition. 

The Synthetic Method. — The synthetic method of teach- 
ing Geography is the opposite of the analytic. It begins 
with the geography of the home, the school-grounds, and 
the neighborhood, and proceeds from these to the larger 
political divisions in turn, according to their importance, 
until the entire globe is embraced in the pupil's knowl- 
edge. It begins with the island, the hill, the valley, the 
pond which the pupil can see, and from these proceeds 
to the continent, the mountain, the river, the lake, the 
ocean, etc., which he can appreciate only by the com- 
parison which he is led to make between these and the 
nearer objects with which he is familiar. 

Advantages. — The chief advantages of the synthetic 
method, which may really be called the new method, 
are as follows : 

1. This method of teaching illustrates by means of 
familiar objects, and therefore creates more interest than 
can be aroused by the analytic method. 

2. It proceeds from the known to the unknown, be- 
ginning with the perception of the known and proceed- 
ing to the conception of the unknown. 

3. It presents that geographical knowledge first which 
is of most importance to the pupil — namely, that of his 
own neighborhood and his own State. 

4. It gives the learner definite ideas as to the meaning 
of geometrical terms, from the fact that he begins with 



356 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

concrete illustrations, which have to him a definite sig- 
nification. 

5. It proceeds from individual facts that are well 
understood by the pupil to the laws and causes governing 
these facts, and thus accords with the requirements of 
inductive teaching, which should characterize all ele- 
mentary work. 

■ 6. It gives the pupil such a basis for geographical 
study as will enable him to acquire a general knowledge 
of the science for himself should his school-time be short 
or his opportunities for securing an education be limited. 

In speaking of the manner of teaching Geography, 
Agassiz says : " Let us not at first resort to books, but 
let us take a class into the fields, point out the hills and 
valleys, rivers and lakes, and let the pupils learn out of 
doors the points of the compass; and then, having shown 
them these things, let them compare the representations 
with the realities, and the maps will have a meaning io 

them When I was in the college of Neufchatel 

I desired to introduce such a method of teaching Geog- 
raphy. I was told it could not be done, and my request 
to be allowed to instruct the youngest children in the in- 
stitution was refused. I resorted to another means, and 
took my own children — my oldest, a boy of six years, 
and my girls, four and a half and two and a half years 
old — and invited the children of my neighbors. Some 

»■' o 

came upon the arms of their mothers ; others could al- 
ready walk without assistance. These children, the oldest 
only six years old, I took upon a hill above the city of 
Neufchatel, and there showed the magnificent peaks of 
the Alps, and told them the names of those mountains 



GEOGRAPHY. 357 

and of the beautiful lakes opposite. I then showed them 
the same things on a raised map, and they immediately 
recognized the localities, and were soon able to do the 
same on an ordinary map. From that day Geography 
was no longer a dry study, but a desirable part of their 
education." 

There is no doubt that for beginners the synthetic plan 
of teaching is much the better, while for advanced teach- 
ing the analytic is preferable, though the two should be 
combined. The synthetic plan should be employed at 
least until the learner is familiar with the ordinary geo- 
graphical terms and their meaning, in order that he may 
study all portions of Descriptive Geography intelligently. 

The Plan of Teaching. 

For convenience, the subject of Descriptive Geography 
may be divided into Primary and Advanced. 

The elementary or primary course includes that part 
of the subject which presents the fundamental truths 
and the chief terms of the science. It embraces several 
stages, as follows : 

1. The Perceptive Stage, in which pupils observe facts 
for themselves. 

2. The Conceptive Stage, in which ideas of geographical 
facts are formed from the pupils' knowledge of similar 
facts. 

3. The Explanatory Stage, in which the child is made 
to acquire a knowledge of geographical facts through ex- 
planations and illustrations. 

The Perceptive Stage.— The first step in the synthetic 
method of teaching Geography is to acquaint the learner 



358 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

with such geographical facts as he can observe for himself. 
Many of these facts have been long familiar to hiin, and 
they will be all the more interesting when he finds that 
they constitute a part of the new science which he is 
about to study. 

Lessons. — These object-lessons — for they are properly 
such — may include simply lessons on the divisions of 
land, as hills, valleys, plains, islands, etc.; also, lessons 
on the divisions of water, as springs, ponds, brooks, 
creeks, and rivers. If a more extended course of les- 
sons is thought desirable, it may be made to include 
lessons on animals, both wild and domestic, lessons on 
plants, lessons on minerals, lessons on the atmosphere, 
lessons on people, lessons on sail. 

The Method. — In teaching by this plan much of the 
instruction must necessarily be oral and all of it con- 
crete. Many of the divisions of land can readily be 
seen from the school-room door. The same is true of 
divisions of water. Where this is the case, it is folly to 
waste time in taking pupils away from the school-house 
to learn things which they already know. Most of the 
pupils, for instance, know a hill, a valley, a brook, a 
creek, and other objects to be found in their own neigh- 
borhood. To take pupils out of doors to look at these 
objects that are entirely familiar to them is therefore 
useless in teaching. It is necessary to have the children 
apply their power of observation only where the object is 
not familiar. For example, the pupil may frequently have 
noticed two bodies of land connected by a narrow por- 
tion, and yet he may not know that such a portion of 
land is called an isthmus. He may also frequently have 
seen points of land projecting into the water, and yet 



GEOGRAPHY. 359 

he may not know that such a point of land is called 
a cape. These are some of the terms, therefore, which 
he should learn by this perceptive process. 

The Moulding-board. — What is known as the mould- 
ing-board or moulding-pan will prove specially useful in 
connection with lessons given during the perceptive 
stage. A broad, shallow pan in which is placed some 
clay is a very valuable and convenient piece of apparatus. 
The clay may be moulded into hills, valleys, islands, 
capes, isthmuses, and the like; and around these water 
may be poured to form straits, bays, and streams. The 
student not only defines a term, but he is enabled here 
to show, by moulding a portion of the clay in such a 
manner as to give a practical illustration, that he also 
understands it. 

2. The Conceptive Stage. — The child having learned 
many geographical facts through the process of observa- 
tion or by the faculty of perception, will be enabled to 
comprehend many others which it is not possible to 
reach through observation. Of these it can form ideas 
only through the process of conception. The process 
of perception thus becomes necessary to the process of 
conception. We learn the unknown only as we are able 
to comprehend it through a comparison with the known. 
Thus, through our knowledge of a hill we may form an 
idea of a mountain, or through our knowledge of a pond 
we may form an idea of a lake. 

Lessons. — The lessons in this stage will include all 
objects with which the pupil is not supposed to be 
familiar. Lessons on land w T ill include plains, deserts, 
prairies, mountains, table -lands, volcanoes, continents. 



360 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

Lessons on water will include gulfs, straits, channels, 
seas, bays, lakes, and oceans. Lessons on animals will 
include such animals as tigers, lions, and others not 
familiar to the child. Lessons on plants should include 
those which are most useful and interesting, as the date- 
palm, the orange tree, the coffee-plant, the tea-plant, 
the sugar-cane, the cotton-plant, the bread-fruit tree, and 
others. Lessons on people should include those present- 
ing some striking characteristics, as the Esquimaux, with 
their dogs, their sledges, and their huts of snow; the 
Arabs, with their horses and their tent-life; the Indians, 
with their wigwams and their love for the chase; the 
Chinese, with their peculiarities of dress and food ; the 
Hindoos, with their castes and their modes of worship; 
the Sandwich Islanders, with their aquatic sports. 

The Method. — In pursuing this plan the teacher must 
begin with what the pupil knows, and by short steps lead 
him to form an idea of the unknown. Thus, he may begin 
with the idea of a pond or a mill-dam which is already 
known to the child. Let him now think of another 
pond so wide that he cannot, see from one side to the 
other, and he will have the conception of a lake. Simi- 
larly, let him stand on a level piece of ground and then 
imagine a similar level piece of ground covered with 
tall grass, and so wide and so long that he cannot see 
where it ends, and he will form an idea of a prairie. 
In the same way he may gain the conception of a moun- 
tain from a hill, a volcano from a mountain, a desert from 
a patch of sand, or a bay from a curve in the bank of a 
creek. The same plan may be followed in giving the 
child a knowledge of the various peoples of the earth, 
the varieties of animals, plants, fruits, and so on, all of 



GEOGRAPHY. 361 

which are beyond the reach of its observation. It is 
true, much of this knowledge will be of a fragmentary 
character, but it will serve to awaken such an interest in 
both Geography and History as will make the pupils 
eager to pursue the study of both sciences. 

3. The Explanatory Stage. — In this stage, which follows 
closely upon the Perceptive and the Conceptive, a knowl- 
edge of geographical facts and geographical terms is con- 
veyed to the learner partly by explanations and partly 
by illustrations. The method is, to a great extent, 
objective. 

Lessons. — These include such of the astronomical fea- 
tures of the science as the pupil is able to comprehend. 
They consist of lessons on the form of the earth, the 
motions of the earth, the cause of day and night, the 
cause of the change of seasons, latitude and longitude, 
the circles (including the tropics, the equator, the polar 
circles), and the zones or belts bounded by these circles. 

The Method. — At this stage of the pupil's progress he 
should be made acquainted with the globe. All the 
usual astronomical facts taught in connection with Geog- 
raphy may be taught in connection with this apparatus. 

In teaching the form of the earth by means of a globe 
some of the proofs that the earth is round may also be 
taught, as the approach of a ship from sea and the 
shadow of the earth on the moon during an eclipse. 

In teaching the equator, the tropics, and the polar c?V- 
cles, the best plan is to call attention to these on the sur- 
face of the globe, and at the same time explain why the 
polar circles and the tropics are located as they are. In 
connection with these circles the zones also may be taught, 



It 



362 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

and with them something of the nature of the plants and 
animals found in each of the zones. Interesting anec- 
dotes or incidents of travel might be related, particularly 
in connection with the Frigid zones or with the Torrid. 

In teaching latitude and longitude the pupil may be 
taught to reckon the latitude and the longitude of 
various places. He should at the same time be required 
to locate the different places whose latitude and longitude 
are named to him. These two subjects should always, if 
possible, be taught in connection with a globe, in order 
that pupils may form no incorrect conceptions with re- 
gard to them. 

In illustrating the motions of the earth it will be easy 
to teach the cause of day and night, and with it sunrise 
and sunset. The cause of the change of seasons may 
also be taught readily by holding the globe in the 
proper position, inclined 23^- degrees, and then moving 
it around some stationary object representing the sun. 
In the absence of a globe, a pumpkin or an apple may 
be used to represent the earth, and a lighted candle or 
a lamp the sun. 

The Globe. — The globe is an important piece of school 
apparatus, and school officers should see that every school 
in which Geography is taught is supplied with one. Many 
teachers, however, find themselves compelled to teach the 
astronomical facts of Geography without a globe. Patent 
globes are expensive, and teachers find it beyond their 
power to secure these. Some manufacturing companies 
enclose their goods in globes, which when emptied of 
their contents answer very well as a substitute for a 
more expensive globe. 



GEOGRAPHY. 363 

Maps and Map-Drawing. — One of the first steps in 
Primary Geography is that of teaching location and 
direction. Pupils should first be taught the points of 
the compass — north, east, south, west — from the school- 
house. This may be done readily by the old-time 
method, of having the learner face to the north. He 
can do this best by locating the place of sunrise in the 
east and sunset in the west. Practical questions should 
then be given to him, asking the direction of certain 
points or localities, until he can tell readily in what 
direction any known point is from the school-house or 
from his home. 

Some teachers draw a north-and-south line on the 
school-room floor, and, crossing this at right angles, an 
east-and-west line. This may be of use to beginners, 
but it ought to require a very short time for the pupil 
to learn that the sun rises in the east and sets in the 
west, and apply this in learning absolute directions. 

In learning relative directions, if the pupil be re- 
quired simply to place the map before him and remem- 
ber, as before, that the right hand is east and the left 
hand west, it will take but a short time for him to learn 
that the top of the map is north and the bottom south. 
No special device or direction need be given to teach 
this fact. Few pupils would be so stupid as not to 
understand it at once. In order to impress the fact on 
the pupil's mind let him give both the absolute and the 
relative direction. Thus, when he tells that Maryland 
is south of Pennsylvania let him also be asked to point- 
to the direction of Maryland. If he states that some 
city is "a little below east" of his home, let him point 
a little south of east to indicate the exact direction. In 



364 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

this way relative and absolute direction will both be- 
come readily understood. 

Making Maps, — As soon as the pupil has learned to 
distinguish both absolute and relative direction he should 
be taught to prepare maps of the school-grounds, the 
neighborhood, etc., locating each farm-house or residence, 
the roads or streets, the neighboring streams, etc. This 
process of map-construction should then continue all 
through the course as the teacher proceeds from divis- 
ion to division. 

The steps in map-drawing are three in number. The 
first efforts of the learner should be to copy from the 
open book, making the map of the same size as the 
copy. The next efforts should be to enlarge and draw 
the map either on paper or on the blackboard. Lastly, 
the pupil should be required to reproduce the map from 
memory. 

In drawing maps the teacher must not expect the first 
efforts from memory to be works of great merit. A 
simple outline with a few of only the most important 
features should be required. These are all that is neces- 
sary to show that the pupil's general idea is correct. 

Pupils should be able to locate on outline maps the 
most important objects, as ranges of mountains, bays, 
lakes, the chief cities, and so on, but not every insig- 
nificant stream or town printed in the atlas. 

Globe-Lessons. — Globes are not designed to teach sim- 
ply the shape of the earth and the motions of that 
planet. Various interesting exercises on the globe may 
be conducted in such a way as to make the study of 
Geography a pleasure to children. A few lessons are 



GEOGRAPHY. 365 

indicated here; the earnest teacher will be able to orig- 
inate mauy others equally valuable. 

The teacher places the globe before his pupils, and 
permits them to step forward one at a time and follow 
his directions. If one fails to answer correctly, another 
is called to take his place, and so the exercise proceeds, 
the teacher telling nothing that the pupils can discover 
for themselves. 

Lesson 1. 

1. What shape is the globe? 

2. What shape is the earth ? 

3. Point out the parts of the globe that represent 
land. 

4. Point out the parts that represent water. 

5. Put your finger on the most northerly part of the 
globe ; what is that point called ? 

6. Put your finger on the most southerly part of the 
globe; w r hat is that point called? 

7. Place your finger halfway between the North Pole 
and the South Pole and turn the globe ;' what line does 
the finger seem to follow? 

8. Which is the greater, the land-surface or the water- 
surface ? 

9. Where is the most land-surface found, north or south 
of the equator ? 

10. Where is the most water-surface found ? 

Lesson 2. 

1. In what direction is the North Pole from the 
equator ? 

2. In what direction is the South Pole from the 
equator ? 



366 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

3. Point to North America. 

4. Point to South America. 

5. In what direction is North America from South 
America ? 

6. Point to Europe. In what direction is Europe from 
North America? 

7. Point to Asia. In what direction is Asia from 
Europe ? 

8. Point to Africa. In what direction is Africa from 
Europe ? 

9. In what direction is Africa from South America? 

10. In what direction is Europe from Asia ? 

In a similar manner globe-lessons may be conducted 
on the following topics: Seas, mountain-ranges, oceans, 
rivers, important cities, the circles, latitude and longitude, the 
zones, the principal islands, and other important topics. 

Map-Lessons. — All important descriptions should have 
their location indicated. The teacher should require the 
pupil to point out on the map every city, State, country, 
or natural division that he attempts to describe. The 
method may be varied from time to time, both to pre- 
serve interest and to make the pupil's knowledge certain. 
One pupil may point to localities and name them in order; 
or he may point to them and have some other pupil name 
them ; or he may point to the localities as called for by 
the teacher or some member of the class ; or the class 
may name as the teacher points; or, best of all, the 
teacher may point to some locality, and, calling upon 
some pupil, have the latter not only name the object, but 
also state some fact in connection with it. By this plan 



GEOGRAPHY, 367 

the location and the interesting facts connected with any 
city, State, river, etc. are associated, and in the future each 
aids in recalling the other. 

Locating Current Events. — The teacher should give his 
pupils frequent exercises in locating current events. Most 
pupils learn more or less of the history of current events 
from the daily and the weekly newspapers, and they 
should be encouraged to locate all events of general 
interest on the map. This will not only help them to 
remember the fact, but it will also lead them to associate 
History and Geography, and thus make each a more in- 
teresting study. 

Preparation of Map-Lessons. — In the preparation of the 
first map-lessons the advance lesson should be read in 
class by the teacher, and the pupil be permitted to an- 
swer with open book. If the pupil is not able to find 
the locality with reasonable effort, the teacher should 
assist him. There is no discipline afforded in having 
a pupil search for ten minutes or more in his efforts to 
discover some unimportant cape or insignificant island. 
After having gone over the lesson with the pupil, the 
teacher may select the important parts and have the 
pupils prepare these thoroughly to be recited from 
memory at the next recitation. 

Definitions. — Pupils should not be permitted to give 
definitions without showing that they fully understand 
them. Many a child has gone through the process of 
defining an island repeatedly, as "A body of land en- 
tirely surrounded by water," without for a moment hav- 
ing any correct conception of the meaning of either of 
the words entirely or surrounded. To such a child the 



368 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

definition means nothing. It is the clear duty of the 
teacher to see that the learner has a definite idea of what 
is meant, and not that he is able only to memorize and 
repeat the words. 

Added Facts. — The best teachers of Geography, par- 
ticularly in presenting the science to primary pupils, as 
a rule, are those who add most interesting facts to those 
communicated by the textbook. The teacher should 
never rest satisfied with the mere statements of the text- 
book. These are necessarily brief. Many interesting 
historical incidents, reminiscences of travel, or facts in 
natural history may be connected with the bare geograph- 
ical details of most localities in such a way as to make 
the science a charming as well as an interesting study 
for all pupils. 

Geograpiiical Outlines. — It is important that pupils be 
able to classify their knowledge with reference to any 
State or country. Geographical outlines will be found 
convenient for this purpose. These will not only lead 
the pupils to systematize their knowledge as derived 
from individual textbooks, but they will also encourage 
the pupils to search for additional facts, and thus broaden 
their knowledge of the science. 

The following form is meant simply to be suggestive ; 
it may be used as it stands or it may be greatly condensed, 
as the teacher may prefer: 

f 1. Latitude. 

1. Location. . . . i 2. Longitude. 

( 3. With reference to other bodies of land or water. 

r 1. Area. 

2. Size i 2. Comparative. 

( 3. Length and breadth. 



GEOGRAPHY. 



369 



3. Outline. 



4. Natural Features. 



5. Productions. 



6. People. 



7. Enterprises. 



' 1. Indentations. . 

2. Projections.. . . 

3. Connections. . . 

4. Islands 



' 1. Land. 



Water . 
Climate. 



a. Seas, 
6. Gulfs, 

c. Estuaries, 

d. Deltas. 
a. Capes, 

6. Peninsulas. 

a. Isthmuses, 

b. Straits. 
a. Single, 
&. Groups. 

a. Mountains, {g^g* 

b. Plateaus, 

c. Plains and valleys, 

d. Water-sheds. 

a. Eivers, 

b. Lakes. 

. . Phenomena, etc. 



i, 



( a. Animal, 
Natural \ b. Vegetable, 

( c. Mineral. 

( a. Animal, 
Artificial \ b. Vegetable, 

I c. General Manufactures. 



1. Eaces. 



2. Appearance, 

3. Customs, 

4. Pursuits, etc., 

5. Number. 

1. Cities and Towns, 

2. Commerce, 

3. Public Works, 

4. Manufacturing, 

5. Railroads, 

6. General Improvements. 



a. Civilized, 

b. Nomadic, 

c. Savage. 



8. Institutions. . . 

9. Miscellaneous. 



f 1. Government.. 

i 

2. Education. . . . 

3. Religion. 



a. Republican, 

b. Monarchical. 

a. Public, 

b. Private. 



Suggestions on Teaching Geography. 

1. First Lessons. — The first lessons in Geography 
shoufd be oral, and facts should be presented before 
definitions and causes. 



24 



370 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

2. Descriptions and Locations. — Descriptions and loca- 
tions should be associated. Interesting facts in connec- 
tion with every place studied should, if possible, be 
given to the child. Fewer locations if possible, and 
more important facts, should be the aim. 

3. History and Geography. — These should be made to 
supplement each other. Every important location 
should have connected with it interesting and striking 
historical associations if such exist. Thus bv the law 
of association both will be remembered. Boston recalls 
the Tea-Party ; Independence Hall, Philadelphia, the 
Declaration of Independence; Florida, the visionary 
dreams of Ponce de Leon ; St. Helena, the banishment 
of Napoleon. 

4. Important Facts. — Teach only the most important 
facts to beginners. Many of the locations of the smaller 
towns, rivers, etc., together with the lengths of rivers, 
are quite as profitably forgotten as remembered. 

5. The Textbook. — Do not continue oral instruction in 
Geography beyond the point where a pupil can profitably 
use a textbook. While it is true that much of the inter- 
esting part of Primary Geography may be presented orally, 
the pupil needs the discipline of study quite as much as 
he needs the geographical facts, and the knowledge ac- 
quired by his own efforts will prove doubly valuable. 

6. Memorizing. — Pupils should not be required to 
memorize descriptions verbatim. If they are able to 
relate the substance of these descriptions in their own 
words, it is much better. They should even be encour- 
aged to go beyond the textbook and add facts as they 
have gleaned them from other textbooks or from news- 
papers and magazines. Should the pupils in reciting 



GEOGRAPHY. 371 

omit anything of importance, this may be brought out 
by the judicious questioning of the teacher. 

7. Local Geography. — Make pupils thoroughly familiar 
with the geography of their homes, and connect this ele- 
mentary knowledge with the first lessons of the text- 
book. 

8. Globe-Lessons. — Give considerable prominence to 
globe-lessons until pupils can locate readily and tell 
direction on the surface of the globe, as well as explain 
the motions of the earth, and acquire other knowledge to 
be gleaned only by the use of the globe. 

9. The Method of Teaching. — The synthetic method of 
teaching Geography is necessarily limited in its applica- 
tion. The local objects and divisions, properly the ma- 
terial of perception, will soon be exhausted, and it will 
then be found that it is more profitable to study the 
world as a whole, and then, avoiding details, proceed to 
the more important divisions. 

10. The Main Facts. — Fix upon the main facts to be 
learned ; mark these in the textbook, and then proceed 
to give your pupils at first only a general knowledge of 
Geography, without crowding their minds with that which 
will prove useless and burdensome. Some prominent edu- 
cational writers urge that at least three-fourths of the ordi- 
nary textbook may be discarded as worthless. 

11. State Geography. — Have pupils study their own 
State in detail. State geography is important to every 
one. But very little attention need be given to the de- 
tails of other States. Many of the facts set forth are 
important only to the residents of those States. The 
general facts respecting all the States, however, should 
be carefully taught. 



372 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

12. Reviews. — Give frequent reviews on the main out- 
lines of the study until these are firmly impressed on the 
mind of the learner. 

13. Origin and Etymology of Names. — Associate with 
names their origin and etymology wherever it is possible 
to do so. Thus, the signification of Nova Scotia (" New 
Scotland"), Newfoundland ("new found land/' the whole 
territory from Labrador to the Chesapeake being called 
new found land by the Cabots when they first discovered 
it), Erie (" wild cat"), Monongahela ("the banks come 
tumbling down"), and many other names, both sug- 
gestive and interesting, may be taught. 

14. Geographical Affixes. — Show that both geographical 
prefixes and geographical suffixes, with their meanings, 
may be made interesting to pupils. Thus, when the 
child learns that ton means a town ; wioh or wick, a 
village ; by, a town ; kill, a creek ; sierra, a saw ; Ho, a 
river ; belle, bel, or beau, beautiful ; strat or stras, a street, 
— the names in which these affixes are found become to 
him doubly interesting, and with very little effort he may 
be led to study names and their meaning for himself. 

15. Location by Latitude and Longitude. — A valuable 
exercise is that of having pupils locate places on either 
the map or the globe, the teacher dictating the latitude 
and the longitude only. Thus, the teacher may place 
on the blackboard the latitude and the longitude, as fol- 
lows, and have the pupils name the localities at the next 
recitation : 

Latitude. Longitude. 



59 J° N. 


31° E. 


53° N. 


6°¥. 


23° S. 


43° W. 


30° N. 


90° W. 



GEOGRAPHY. 373 

An equally valuable exercise is that of having the 
pupils name all the cities or countries on or near a 
certain parallel or on or near a given meridian. 

16. The Classification of Geographical Facts. — Let pupils 
be trained to classify geographical facts as they proceed. 
Thus, let them be required to tell not only what certain 
countries produce, but also from what countries certain 
products may be obtained. Let them name a product 
and locate all the countries producing it. In this man- 
ner they may locate the countries producing rice ; also 
those producing spices, silks, tea, coffee, wine, oranges, 
coal, coal oil, salt, etc. Let them also tell in what coun- 
tries certain animals are found, as the deer, the bear, the 
wolf, the tiger, the elephant, and so on. This will tend 
to make their knowledge both broad and accurate. 

17. Voyages. — Let pupils describe imaginary voyages 
or travels, starting at a certain point, and telling of the 
important places passed on the route, with a brief de- 
scription or interesting incident relative to each, and 
naming the waters or the countries through which they 
pass. 

18. Comparisons. — Have pupils compare countries and 
bodies of water to objects whose outlines they resemble ; 
thus, Italy to a boot, Lake Erie to a whale, the Sea of 
Japan to a rabbit. 

Require them also to make comparisons of size, as 
Arabia with the United States, England with Pennsyl- 
vania, Texas with Rhode Island ; or have them select 
divisions of nearly equal extent, as Indiana and Ireland, 
Illinois and England. 

19. Tracing-Lessons.— Pupils may be taught to remem- 
ber the locality of places by means of tracing-lessons. 



374 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

Thus, let them start at any point and follow a river or 
a coast-line, and name every important place as they 
reach it. The river Mississippi or the eastern coast- 
line of the United States would prove a valuable line 
of travel. Lessons of this kind tend to cultivate a 
habit of close observation. If the pupil could tell 
something about each important place as he names it, 
the lesson might be made still more interesting. A full 
course of these tracing-lessons would give pupils a very 
full knowledge of the local geography of any country. 

20. Newspapers. — Newspapers should be brought into 
the school-room occasionally, when the places mentioned 
in the news department, both home and foreign, may with 
profit be referred to the pupils for location. 

21. Compositions. — It will be found a pleasant exercise 
to have pupils sometimes write a short composition de- 
scribing the country which they have studied. At such 
times encourage them to add anything of interest that 
they may be able to glean from other sources than the 
textbook. 

22. Description. — The monotony of the daily recitation 
may be varied by reading to the school from magazines, 
newspapers, or books of travel vivid descriptions of vari- 
ous localities ; also, by showing to the class pictures of 
natural scenery as found in books, illustrated newspapers, 
and magazines. 

23. Geographical Cards. — Where the real objects cannot 
be observed by children, geographical cards will be found 
of great value. These illustrate by means of engravings 
the chief geographical terms, as isthmus, sea, island, etc. 

24. Blackboard Drawing. — Outline map-drawing on the 
blackboard is in general more useful than more elaborate 



GEOGRAPHY. 375 

work with pen or pencil. The teacher who makes a hobby 
of map-(lrawing wastes a great deal of time and labor. 
The objects of map-drawing, training the pupils to re- 
produce outlines and locate readily, should always be 
kept in mind. 

25. Map-Drawing by Latitude and Longitude. — The 
drawing of outlines and the location of important 
places and geographical divisions by the parallels and 
meridians will be found specially useful where the map 
of any political division, from a State upward, is to be 
constructed. 

26. Exhibition Maps. — The best maps should be se- 
lected from the work of the pupils and be placed on 
the walk This will prove a valuable incentive for pupils 
to do their best. Some of the best maps drawn on the 
board may also be permitted to remain for a day or two, 
unless the board-surface is needed for other purposes. 

27. Sectional Maps. — These are valuable in teaching 
pupils the location of the various divisions. It would 
be well if every pupil were required to draw by exact 
measurement a county map of his own State, then paste 
it on card-board and cut it into sections, each section to 
contain a single county. These sections he should be 
required to place in their proper positions again. In 
a short time 'he will become quite expert in locating 
every county. The same plan might be pursued with 
reference to a State map of the United States and the 
township map of his own county. 

28. Important Maps. — It would be well if the pupil 
were required to draw either on the" blackboard or on 
paper a map of the United States, also a map of his own 
county and State, at least once a year. 



376 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

29. Open Maps. — When outline maps are furnished for 
the schools the teacher should see that they are kept open, 
or at least a portion of them. Many a pupil learns quite 
as much Geography from the open maps before him, 
where he may see and examine them at all times, as he 
does from the formal recitation. 

30. Geography-Matches. — Much interest may be aroused 
by means of Geography-matches. The teacher will be able 
to devise various ways of conducting these, and the ques- 
tions may vary very greatly. As an example an exercise 
may consist of questions similar to the following, one 
question being given to each pupil in turn : 

Exercise. 

1. Name a river in England, and tell into what it 
flows. 

2. Name a river in France, and tell into what it flows. 

3. Name a river in Russia, and tell into what it flows. 

4. Name a river in Italy, and tell into what it flows. 

5. Name a sea in Europe, and locate it. 

6. Name a sea in Asia, and locate it. 

7. Name a country, give its capital, and locate both 
its capital and its largest city. 

8. Name some important mineral, and tell in what 
countries it is found. 

9. Name some important vegetable production, and 
tell in what countries it grows. 

10. Name some important manufactured article, and 
tell in what countries it is produced. 

31. From Facts to Causes.— Pupils should, as far as 
possible, be taught the causes of the various geographical 
phenomena and the reasons for the different geographical 



GEOGRAPHY. 377 

facts. It will be interesting to them to know why the 
earth is round, why it is slightly flattened at the poles, 
how islands are formed, how rivers are formed, why it is 
colder at some places than at others in the same latitude, 
and the reasons for hundreds of kindred facts. Much 
of the philosophical part of Geography must be taught 
in connection with Physical Geography, but many causes 
of interesting geographical phenomena may be made plain 
to those who are not yet prepared to pursue the study of 
Physical Geography. 



HISTORY. 



History is a narrative of events. It is a record of 
the past, giving the facts concerning both nations and 
individuals and showing to some extent the causes of 
the present condition of different nations. History is 
usually considered under the two heads, Facts of History 
and the Philosophy of History. The former embraces 
and describes the chief events in the order of their 
occurrence, together with sketches of such individuals 
as played an important part in the various changes as 
they occurred; while the Philosophy of History seeks 
to investigate the causes which have led to the various 
changes that have taken place in the life of nations, and 
to infer the general laws that are likely to govern, to some 
extent, the conduct of nations as well as individuals, and 
thus mould their future. 

I. Difficulties in the Way of Teaching History. 

One of the chief difficulties in connection with the 
teaching of History is that we have no means of prov- 
ing the truth of historical statements. In natural 
science we can illustrate by means of apparatus; in 
many other sciences we can refer to axioms or general 
definitions; but in History we have nothing to depend 

378 



HISTORY. 379 

upon except the direct statement of the historian. When 
we further take into consideration the fact that histo- 
rians frequently disagree, together with the proneness 
of men to misrepresent both their own actions and those 
of their enemies, the proper teaching of History becomes 
a still more serious matter. 

A second difficulty lies in the fact that in some cases 
the means of securing reliable information as afforded to 
the historian have been but limited, and some supposed 
facts of history are therefore merely guesses, of whose 
truth or falsity we know absolutely nothing. 

A third difficulty in the teaching of History lies in 
the nature of the study itself. There is in most sciences 
a relation existing between the different parts which 
enables us in a measure to systematize the study. In 
History this is not the case. We have no relations here 
except those of a chronological nature ; there is usually 
very little connection of events except in time, and this 
gives us but little opportunity to refer historical facts to 
any laws of association for the purpose of enabling us to 
remember. 

II. Methods of Teaching History. 

In the matter of writing History there are two chief 
methods. The first, known as the Ethnographic, is that 
in which the history of a particular nation is narrated 
without reference to the history of other nations, except 
so far as may be necessary to illustrate the facts related 
concerning the nation under discussion. The second 
method, known as the Synchronistic, relates the history 
of mankind in eras or epochs, each nation receiving its 
proportionate share of the narrative as pertaining to 



380 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

that period. For most students in History the ethno- 
graphic method is preferable, as the pupil is enabled to 
trace the history of a single nation from its origin to the 
present time without danger of confusion of facts. 

In teaching this subject the history of one's own 
country should be the first considered. The general 
methods which apply to any one country may, however, 
be made to apply in studying any other, and therefore 
the following discussion, which has special reference to 
teaching the history of the United States, is applicable 
to the teaching of the history of any other nation or 
country. 

Principles. 

The following principles should govern the teaching 
of History : 

1. The First Steps in Teaching History should be in the 
Form of Narrative. — The child's love for stories mani- 
fests itself at a very early age. It listens with absorbing 
interest to the relation of incidents and events of a per- 
sonal nature as early as it is able to comprehend. The 
true plan of teaching seems therefore to be indicated by 
the mental condition of the learner. This taste for 
narrative should be gratified by teaching at first mainly 
interesting incidents, even though the facts communicated 
be of a fragmentary or disconnected character. 

2. Oral Instruction should Precede the Study of a Text- 
book on History. — The chief thing to be accomplished at 
first is that of arousing an interest on the part of the 
child. Pupils who begin the study of a textbook with- 
out preliminary oral instruction are apt to memorize the 
textbook matter in order that they may recite the details 
verbatim. The pupil may of course read a book in con- 



HISTORY. 381 

nection with the oral instruction which he receives, but 
he should not at first be permitted to recite from it. He 
should be required to reproduce, in the shape of short 
compositions, what the teacher has told, rather than 
what he may have gleaned from the book. 

3. The First Instruction in History should be mainly 
Biographical. — The personal history of Columbus, his 
travels, his efforts to interest the different courts and 
kings in his project to discover a new world, his trials, 
his final discovery of land, and his ultimate poverty and 
neglect, will all be interesting to the child. Thus, also, 
the life and adventures of Captain John Smith, the 
biography of William Penn and a narrative of his 
efforts to establish settlements in America, the story of 
Washington's life, — all these will prove much more 
interesting than the records of the various charters and 
how obtained, or the wars and intrigues of the different 
nations for the purpose of acquiring territory for the 
countries of the Old World. 

4. The Facts of History and the Philosophy of History 
should be Associated. — As soon as the pupil is prepared 
to understand the causes which have led to certain events 
he should be taught not only these, but also the results 
of such changes as have taken place. A knowledge of 
the facts of History is important, but a knowledge of 
the philosophy of History and the relation of results to 
the future welfare of the country, is of vastly greater 
importance. 

5. The First Teaching of History should be Inductive. — 
The pupil will naturally be more easily interested in the 
history of his own country than in the history of foreign 
countries or in the history of the world at large. A 



382 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

knowledge of the history of one's own country is also 
more important to the student than that of other coun- 
tries ; and for this reason also the first instruction in 
History should begin at home. 

The next countries to be taught are those with Avhich 
the home history is to some extent connected, and from 
these the instruction should pass to the world at large. 
At first only the most important and most interesting 
facts need be taught. Much should be left untaught 
for the pupil to acquire for himself. In no branch of 
study can the student do so much for himself as in the 
subject of History. 

6. History should be made Interesting. — The learner 
who has once become interested in the subject of History 
will need neither urging nor teaching; he will pursue 
the study of History for the love of the narrative itself. 
The chief work of the teacher, therefore, lies in the di- 
rection of creating such an interest as will lead the pupil 
to pursue the study from a love for it when no longer 
under the guidance of an instructor. What we all 
remember best of History is what most interested us 
when we studied the subject ; and for this reason also 
the teacher should make special efforts to render the 
subject interesting. 

Essentials in Teaching History. 

Primary History. — The method of teaching primary 
History differs from that of teaching the more advanced 
part of the subject mainly in the fact that primary in- 
struction should consist as nearly as possible of stories 
and biographical sketches. These need have little con- 
nection so far as chronology is concerned. The less said 



HISTORY. 383 

about elates, the less the child's mind will be encumbered 
with useless matter. 

The proper presentation of primary History requires 
the teacher to be expert in reciting narratives. He must 
also have a thorough knowledge of the incidents he at- 
tempts to relate, and be able to relate them in such a 
way as to attract and interest his pupils. The teacher's 
knowledge of a single textbook will not prove sufficient. 
He should be able to add much interesting matter, and be 
able to tell much that is not to be found in the ordinary 
textbook. 

Reading History. — A love for History should be created 
by placing in the hands of pupils such books as they will 
be able not only to comprehend, but also enjoy, because 
of the interest which the narratives themselves arouse. 
Among the works to be highly commended are those of 
" Peter Parley " and Charlotte M. Yonge, and, when the 
pupils are a little older, Dickens's Child's History of Eng- 
land, the Rollo Books, Abbott's Histories, and Higgin- 
son's Youth's History of the United States. All these are 
written in such a captivating style, and present facts in 
such an interesting way, as to make it a pleasure rather 
than a task to read them. When once the teacher has 
awakened a love for historical reading the study of 
History will not prove an uninviting one to the pupil, 
nor will the teacher find the task of teaching History 
one to be dreaded. 

Biography. — History has for its basis the biography 
of the chief actors in a nation. The student who reads 
the lives of Washington, Franklin, and others of the 



384 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

Revolutionary days, reads substantially the early his- 
tory of our republic. It is important, therefore, that the 
student of History be encouraged to read biography also. 
Let him not be satisfied with the bare historical fact 
as stated in the textbook, but lead him to connect this 
with the life and interesting history of those who made 
History what it is by the part which they played in the 
historical changes that have been wrought. 

Leading Events. — The student of History should be led 
to see that certain leading events in the history of every 
nation have been most fruitful of historical changes. 
These he should be taught to regard as the essential 
points to be remembered. Much of History, it may be 
remarked, is only to be read. The pupil would find 
it unprofitable to attempt to remember everything as 
it occurred in a nation's growth. History, however, 
should not be a mere skeleton. Chronology and History 
are not the same, however important the relation between 
the two. 

Historic Centres. — Much the best plan of presenting 
History to the advanced student is that of selecting some 
historical event as a centre about which others may be 
grouped. Thus, in American history, the chief centres 
are Discoveries, Early Settlements, the French and In- 
dian War, the Revolutionary War, the War of 1812, the 
Mexican War, the Civil War, Slavery. About these dif- 
ferent centres may be grouped nearly every historical fact 
of importance in the record of our country. 

The History of Peace. — Probably in no respect is so 



HISTORY. 385 

great a mistake made in the teaching of History as in 
giving undue prominence to the history of the various 
wars with which our country has been afflicted. Authors 
of histories seem to think that the student of History is 
interested only in war and its results, and not in the 
greater victories of peace. Much attention should be 
given to such important topics as the introduction of 
railways, the invention of telegraphy, the introduction 
of the electric light, and various other matters that mark 
intellectual progress and prosperity, and show the substan- 
tial claims which an advanced civilization presents. 

Causes and Results. — History should not be regarded 
as a mere recital of events. Pupils should be taught 
that each event has had a producing cause, and this, with 
the result, should also be carefully taught. Thus, in 
teaching the Revolutionary War, the plan should be first 
to show both the direct and the indirect causes which led 
to the revolt of the colonies against England ; following 
this should be mentioned the chief events and incidents 
of the war itself; and then the results of the Revolution, 
including the independence of the States, the Confederacy, 
the formation of the Constitution, the inauguration of 
the present government, the enlargement of territory. 

In a similar manner, each of the other important 
events in our history might be taught, and in connection 
with the event the producing cause or causes, as well as 
the result and its influence on the subsequent history of 
the nation. 

Historical Characters. — It will frequently prove profit- 
able to have pupils study some historical characters with- 

25 



386 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

out reference to the concurrent actions of others. Thus, 
it would be interesting to trace the career of Washington 
from the time he first appears in the history of our nation 
to the time of his death. The biography of Franklin, 
William Penn, Captain John Smith, Columbus, Henry 
Hudson, and others would prove equally profitable. 

Methods of Recitation. 

The method of recitation in History should be mainly 
topical. The advantage of the topical method in History 
is that pupils learn to express themselves in a more con- 
nected manner than by the catechetical method of recita- 
tion. The latter method should, however, be employed 
in bringing out facts of interest that may have been 
overlooked by the pupil. 

Care must be taken when the topical method of reci- 
tation is pursued that pupils recite in their own words 
and not in the language of the textbook. One of the 
chief faults in the past teaching of History has been 
that of requiring pupils to recite as nearly as possible in 
the words of the textbook. The result has been that 
pupils memorized the language of the book verbatim, 
and while able to repeat the words knew nothing of 
History. 

It will be found a valuable variation of the topical 
method to have part of the class recite orally while 
others write their recitation of the same topics, some on 
paper and others on the blackboard. The topical method 
may be further varied by having a pupil who recited 
orally proceed to write out in correct language all that 
he stated previously. By this method the pupil gains 
a twofold advantage of the recitation, in making the his- 



HISTORY. 387 

torical fact a part of his own knowledge and in gaining 
at the same time valuable training in language. 

Questions. — When a pupil has finished reciting a topic 
the teacher should proceed to question him in order to 
develop such facts as may not have been stated, as well 
as detect whether the recitation has been a mere repeti- 
tion of words or an intelligent statement of facts. 

Outlines of Topics. — Before the recitation on History 
begins let a number of pupils proceed to place on the 
blackboard an outline of the subjects to be discussed 
during the recitation. This will require each pupil to 
have a comprehensive view of the lesson as a w T hole. 
Writing this outline will tend also to impress on the 
mind of the learner even the details of the lesson. 
While some pupils are writing this outline others may 
proceed to discuss individual topics. Both the written 
and the oral discussion should be open to the criticism 
of the other members of the class, in order that all may 
be trained to strict accuracy. 

Geography and History. — These two should, to some 
extent, be taught together. All important historical 
events should be located on the map. Pupils should be 
required to show the routes of armies, the points of 
attack, etc. They should also be required to trace the 
course of navigators in making the first discoveries in 
this country. They may also be required to produce 
maps and locate the principal historical events ; all this 
will tend to make their knowledge of both Geography 
and History more definite and more valuable. 

Historical Discussion. — The student of History should 
be encouraged to form judgments and express his opinions 
on any historical changes that may have taken place. 



388 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

Thus, the causes which may have led to any war, or the 
result of a war, may form the basis of discussion, in 
which the pupil should be permitted to express his 
opinion unbiased by any statement of the historian. 
This will encourage pupils to read History intelligently, 
and not follow blindly the statements of possibly partisan 
writers. 

Historical Lectures. — These are designed mainly to 
benefit those who have* completed the study of the text- 
book, by adding new matter Avhich is beyond the reach 
of the learner. They may be made specially interesting 
by making them partake largely of a biographical 
character. They should also, to a great extent, be in- 
terspersed with personal incidents and anecdotes, to make 
them both interesting and profitable. 

Preparation for the Recitation. 

The Teacher's Preparation. — The teacher should know 
much more Historv than is to be found in the textbook 
from which the pupil is expected to recite. He should 
also know what is presented in the textbook used, and 
the manner in which it is presented, in order to appre- 
ciate the efforts of the pupil reciting. He should, how- 
ever, have an additional fund of anecdote and incident 
from which to draw, and with which to embellish and 
make interesting the topics to be taught. He should 
also be prepared to express himself in choice language 
and in such a manner as to hold the attention of the 
class closely to the subject of the lesson. 

The Pupils' Preparation. — Pupils should be required to 
prepare their lessons by topics, not by pages. Uniformity 
of textbooks is not absolutelv essential in this branch. 



HISTORY. 389 

Indeed, many good teachers prefer that the pupils should 
not all prepare their lesson from the same author, per- 
mitting the children to gather their knowledge from any 
reliable source. 

The pupils in preparing the lesson should be en- 
couraged to get a view of the lesson as a whole, and then 
add the chief details. They should be encouraged to 
prepare an outline of the chief events without reference 
to the minute details of the subject; these may, if neces- 
sary, be added afterward. Each event should be studied 
also with reference to its relation to preceding events, as 
well as with relation to its causes and results. 

III. Suggestions on Teaching History. 

1. Dates. — Do not require your pupils to memorize 
all the dates. Select only those dates to be memorized 
which mark the leading events. The sequence of events 
is more important than dates. It is the senseless require- 
ment of some teachers that all dates be memorized, and 
it is this that makes History a study to be despised by 
the pupil. 

2. The Advance Lesson. — Bead the advance lesson 
aloud to the class, and have your pupils mark such parts 
as you desire to have them remember. Much of History 
is simply to be read, not memorized. 

3. Prominent Events. — Make a few events prominent, 
and around these group minor events that have a rela- 
tion to these more important ones. 

4. Chronological Tables. — Give but little attention to 
chronological tables except for reference. Teaching 
chronology is not teaching History. The year or the 
day on which a battle was fought or a city destroyed is 



390 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

of but little moment compared with the cause and the 
results. 

5. Causes and Results. — Have pupils fix in their minds 
the causes and the results of the most prominent events, 
as the Revolutionary War or the Mexican War. Ask 
questions which will lead them to search for causes. 
Why did Penn try to establish colonies in this country ? 
Why do we celebrate the Fourth of July ? Why did 
the Dutch seek homes on the Hudson ? Why did the 
Boston people throw the tea overboard into Boston 
harbor? Questions of this character will cause the 
pupil to think, and he will see some reason why we 
should study History. 

6. Biographical Sketches. — Have pupils write short 
biographical sketches of the most prominent or inter- 
esting characters in History. This will lead them to an 
acquaintance with History by a pleasant path, and they 
will soon become interested. 

7. Map-Drawing. — Let pupils in History draw maps 
and locate important events, so as to show that they 
comprehend fully what they recite. These maps may 
be drawn on an enlarged scale, and the routes of armies 
be traced and the scenes of other interesting events be 
located. 

8. Make History Interesting. — Supplement the text- 
book statement with interesting anecdotes, incidents, 
stories, and sketches of noted men. The sufferings of 
the soldiers at Valley Forge and their bloody footprints 
in the snow have stirred the heart of many an American 
boy more than all the victories ever gained by the Con- 
tinental army. An anecdote often serves to make an 
historical fact stick when it would otherwise be for- 



HISTOBY. 391 

gotten. The fact that Santa Anna retreated so rapidly 
from Cerro Gordo as to leave his private papers and 
his wooden leg behind will have a more important 
influence in causing the learner to remember the Amer- 
ican victory over the Mexicans in that battle than all 
the possible records of "killed, wounded, and missing" 
could do. 

9. The Civil War. — In teaching the history of the 
American Civil War do not lead pupils to study events 
according to the years in which they occurred. Much 
the easier plan is to trace the progress of events by 
studying the plans of the various campaigns, which 
were designed to secure the following results : 

1. The Possession of the Border States ; 

2. The Capture of the Confederate Capital ; 

3. The Blockade and Occupation of the Confederate 
Ports ; 

4. The Opening of the Mississippi ; 

5. The Division of the Confederacy, 

Each of the foregoing should be studied connectedly 
and in detail, in order that the pupil may get a compre- 
hensive view of the entire subject, and so arrange the 
history in his mind as to remember it readily. 

10. State History. — Have pupils give much attention 
to the history of their own State. They ought to be- 
come acquainted with all the important events that have 
become a part of the history of the State in which they 
live. 

11. Historical Changes. — Let children who have stud- 
ied History for some time draw parallels between the 
past and the present, showing the progress made in art, 
commerce, education, facilities for travel, communication 



392 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

by post and by telegraph, and the advancement made in 
social customs. 

12. New Matter. — Whenever possible add new and 
interesting historical matter to that given by the text- 
book. This may either consist of more minute details 
than are given in the book, or it may consist of contem- 
poraneous events. 

13. Review. — Review lessons continually. Do not 
wait for a weekly or a monthly review, but whenever 
you have a few spare moments call upon some pupils to 
explain topics previously taught. This will impress per- 
manently on the mind the most important facts learned. 

14. Examinations. — In examining classes in History 
avoid dates as much as possible. Assign topics, and 
let pupils tell or write all they know on these. Inter- 
mingle in these topics persons, places, and events; as 
Fort Sumter, Alexander Hamilton, Yorlctoion, the Decla- 
ration of Independence, Ethan Allen, The Missouri Com- 
promise. 

15. Civil Government. — Whenever possible teach in 
connection with History some of the important pro- 
visions of the Constitution of the United States. Pu- 
pils may be led to take an interest in the duties per- 
formed by the various officers of our government, and 
in the powers which these officers possess. They may 
also be interested in the mode of making and repealing 
laws, collecting customs, etc. The study of History in 
connection with the study of Civil Government should 
aim to prepare pupils for citizenship. 



THE ARTS. 



The arts to which attention should be given in a 
general course of instruction are Penmanship, Drawing, 
and Vocal Music. 



CHAPTER I. 
Penmanship. 



Nothing need be said here as to the usefulness of this 
art. Indeed, however primitive the condition of a school, 
the necessity of learning to write, like that of learning to 
read, is always conceded. The excellence of instruction 
usually presented on the covers of the various copybooks 
precludes the necessity of doing more here than give a few 
suggestions on the methods of teaching penmanship. 

The Objects. — Two chief objects must be kept in view 
in teaching penmanship : first, the training of the eye to 
perceive and judge of correct and beautiful foi~m ; and, 
second, the training of the hand to execute and produce 
form correctly. The child learns to distinguish between 
correct and incorrect forms much more readily than it 
learns to execute form. Unless there is special talent 
it learns to produce form correctly only after long-con- 
tinued practice; and it seems specially necessary, there- 

393 



394 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

fore, that the exercises presented be so graded as to make 
the practice of the greatest possible value. 

The Ends to be Secured in Teaching Penmanship. 

1. Legibility. — The desirable ends to be secured in 
the teaching of penmansphip are legibility, rapidity, and 
beauty. Of these the first and the second are by far the 
most important for the ordinary student. A plain, legible, 
regular handwriting is vastly more pleasant to read, and 
vastly more creditable to both teacher and pupil, than a 
semi-artistic, grotesque, or angular style that displays 
some weakness of intellect. 

2. Rapidity. — Next in importance to legibility of 
handwriting is rapidity. This is gained only by con- 
stant practice. Written spelling-exercises and written 
exercises in other branches of study contribute much 
toward making pupils rapid writers. Business-men par- 
ticularly find it important to write rapidly. Rapid writing- 
exercises ought to be a part of the school-work, but 
legibility should in no case be subordinated to rapidity. 

3. Beauty. — Beauty of writing is important in culti- 
vating the taste, but in no case should it be ranked 
in importance with either legibility or rapidity. Nor 
should it be supposed that beauty of penmanship con- 
sists in sweeping curves, heavy shades, or other fantastic 
or fanciful work. Flourishes are one thing, while correct 
and beautiful form is quite another. 

Suggestions on Penmanship. 

1. Classification. — Much time may be saved in teaching 
penmanship by having the pupils classified. The school 
may consist of several sections, all of which may write 



PENMANSHIP. 395 

at the same time. An explanation to a pupil in any 
section should be made to all in that section at the same 
time. This may be done by the aid of the blackboard or 
the writing-chart. 

2. Writing-Charts. — If a regular series of copybooks is 
in use, the charts by the same author should be placed 
before the pupils. These will be found very convenient 
in enabling the teacher to point out the proper formation 
of letters, etc., that the proper corrections may be made. 

3. Printed Copies. — The printed copybooks published 
by many American book-houses oughc to find their way 
into every school-room. They are but little more ex- 
pensive than so much blank paper, and they serve a 
much better purpose, and save for the teacher much 
time which may be applied to better use than " setting 
copies." 

4. Copy-Slips. — Should no regular series of copybooks 
be adopted, the teacher should prepare a series of graded 
copy-slips. The old-style head-lines do not answer the 
purpose, nor ought the teacher to be expected to set copies 
for thirty or forty pupils everyday preparatory to their ex- 
ercise in penmanship. He will be able to do much better 
work by writing on good foolscap paper the same exercise 
for all the pupils in a section, and then cutting these slips 
off, so as to furnish one to every member of the section. 
By this plan the teacher will also be able to grade his 
lessons from day to day. 

5. A Writing-Time. — The teacher should have a special 
time set apart when all pupils may write, and their 
copybooks should be kept out of sight at all other times. 
The best time for the writing-exercise is before recess or 
before the close of school, or at any other time when the 



396 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

children's nerves are steady; the worst time is imme- 
diately after the opening of school or after recess, when 
the pulse is bounding and the nerves are quivering with 
the excitement of the play which the children have just 
left. 

6. Proper Position. — The teacher must be careful to 
see that pupils assume a proper position while writing. 
The right side should be nearest the desk, the arm 
should rest on the muscular portion between the elbow 
and the wrist, and only the tips of the little finger and 
its nearest neighbor should be permitted to touch the 
paper. The desk should not be so high as to make the 
arm tired in writing or cause the right shoulder to pro- 
ject above the level of the left. 

7. Holding the Pen. — The chief thing to be insisted 
upon here is that the pen shall be held loosely. The 
chief difference between writing with ease and writing 
in such a way as to make one tire readily consists in the 
manner of holding the pen. A writer who holds his 
pen with a firm grasp will find his muscles growing 
tired in a very short time, while another who holds the 
pen lightly is enabled to write for hours without becom- 
ing wearied. 

8. Short Pencils. — The teacher should see that his 
pupils use long pencils. The frequent use of a short 
pencil causes the pupil to contract a habit of holding it 
in a cramped position, which, when he comes to write 
with a pen, will greatly interfere with either graceful or 
rapid writing. Bad habits in holding a pencil will 
almost certainly result in holding the pen improperly. 

9. Movements. — Have pupils from the beginning write 
with a free and ready movement, such as will permit 



PENMANSHIP. 397 

them to use the muscles without tiring them. Whether 
the movement be the finger movement, the forearm 
movement, or the whole-arm movement, let the play of 
the muscles be entirely unconstrained. 

10. Slate-Writing. — Slate-writing should precede writ- 
ing on paper. This will give the same muscular move- 
ment as writing with a pen, provided the pupil be re- 
quired to hold the pencil properly, which he can do only 
when the pencil is of proper size. 

11. Tracing. — When the pupil first attempts to use the 
pen he should be required for some time to trace the 
letters with a dry pen, much as the professional violinist 
is first required to hold the bow properly and then prac- 
tice for a time without a rosined bow and without pro- 
ducing any sound. Tracing the letters with a dry pen 
will give the muscular movement as w T ell as cultivate 
the idea of form. 

12. Pencil- Writing. — Writing through the first books 
of a series with lead-pencil instead of pen and ink will 
be less likely to deface the copybooks, while the prac- 
tice is almost as valuable as is afforded bv writing 
with a pen. 

13. Tracing Forms. — A valuable exercise is that of 
tracing forms of letters. This may be done on a piece 
of practice-paper first with a dry pen and then with ink. 
The same letter, as a, or o, or s, should be traced over 
hundreds of times until the muscles acquire the proper 
movement to make the letter properly. 

14. Blackboard- Writing.— Forms may be traced also 
on the blackboard with chalk. This will give a free- 
arm movement. Pupils may also be permitted at times 
to write on the blackboard. See, however, that the 



398 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

crayon is held properly and that the work is neatly and 
correctly done. 

15. But One Way at a Time. — Do not confuse beginners 
by teaching them several ways of making a letter, espe- 
cially capitals. Let them practice carefully on a single 
way of making a letter until they can make it readily 
and correctly. If they need other forms these may be 
taught later. 

16. Individuality. — Pupils should not be encouraged 
to imitate the copy so closely as to destroy their ow 7 n 
individuality. One's handwriting should be character- 
istic. When pupils have once learned to write legibly, 
let their chief aim be to write rapidly, even if the letters 
are not wholly like those of the copybook. 

17. Specimens. — Let each pupil be required to give a 
specimen of his handwriting when he enters school. At 
the middle of the term let him give a second specimen, 
and at the close of the term a third, in order that his 
improvement may be determined by a comparison. All 
this will be an incentive to improvement. 

18. Principles. — The principles embraced in the letters 
should be carefully taught, but not at first. Writing is 
learned mostly by imitation and practice. Let pupils at 
first write and rewrite single letters, then short words, 
and finally sentences, leaving the analyses and the prin- 
ciples to be among the last instruction imparted. 

19. Criticism. — The teacher should move around among 
his pupils while they are writing, in order that he may ex- 
amine their work and make necessary criticisms. Often 
he may correct the mistake of nearly a whole class by 
writing on the board a letter incorrectly as he finds it in 
the work of a number of pupils. 



PENMANSHIP. 399 

20. Dictation. — A valuable exercise in penmanship is 
that of having pupils write from dictation. The ex- 
ercise may be made doubly valuable by making this 
dictation consist of maxims, rules of health, models of 
business-letters, receipts, checks, and other commercial 
forms. When once the pupils have learned to write a 
good hand, the teacher may substitute these dictation- 
exercises to a great extent for the regular writing- 
lesson. 

21. Graded Work. — The first combinations of letters 
should consist of words in which the letters are each a 
space in height, as man, men ; from these the steps 
should be gradual to words containing letters more 
than a space in height, as tan, hen, get. These may 
be followed by words containing capitals easily made, 
as Aim, Can, Ink. It must be borne in mind that some 
of the capitals are but little more difficult to make than 
are some of the small letters. 

22. Self-Help. — Show pupils in the beginning of the 
term that their improvement in penmanship will de- 
pend more on what they do for themselves than on 
what is done for them. They can learn to write only 
by exercising great care and by practicing patiently 
until they are able to make the forms correctly and 
rapidly. 

23. The Custody of the Books. — Many reasons might 
be given why the copybooks should be kept at the 
teacher's desk when the w r riting-exercise is not in 
progress. This will prevent much confusion and 
keep the pupils from writing at improper times. A 
system of signals, the simpler the better, may be used 
for distributing and collecting: the books. 



CHAPTER II. 

Drawing. 

There is no good reason why Drawing should not 
form a part of every school-course. Ability to draw 
is an indispensable element of all true education. It 
is argued by excellent authority that, "commercially 
speaking, the power to draw well is worth more in the 
market to-day than anything else taught in the public 
schools ; and an education in industrial art is of more 
importance to the development of this country, and the 
increase of her wealth and reputation, than any other 
subject of common-school education." 

The chief ends to be reached in teaching drawing are 
the culture of the eye in judging of form and the train- 
ing of the hand in producing form correctly. Both of 
these processes will teach the child to appreciate art and 
create in him a desire to possess its products. The tend- 
ency of drawing as a study is to minister to the child's 
love for the beautiful in form, and it thus aids directly 
in aesthetic culture. 

Suggestions on Teaching Drawing. 

The authors of drawing-books differ so much in the 
details as to the manner of presenting the subject that 
we shall limit the discussion here to a few general sug- 

400 



DRAWING. 401 

gestions, referring the reader for more specific methods 
to any one of the various systems of drawing. 

1. Non-Systematic Drawing. — Pupils early display a 
taste for drawing pictures of objects. Two benefits will 
arise from permitting them to enjoy themselves in this 
way : they will not only be kept busy, but they will 
also become interested in the subject of drawing itself 
as their pictures become more and more correct. 

Even after pupils have begun the study of drawing 
in a systematic way they should be permitted to amuse 
themselves by drawing pictures of familiar objects, or 
even produce work strictly imaginary in character. This 
supplementary work is valuable in cultivating taste as well 
as in giving training to the hand. 

2. Ruled Slates. — It would be well if every child could 
at first work on a slate ruled in squares. The lines would 
serve at first as a guide, and later the places of intersec- 
tion might be used in locating points in drawing the pic- 
tures of objects. 

3. Drawing and Writing. — Where but little spare time 
exists, as in the case of ungraded schools, drawing and 
writing-exercises might alternate, or the pupils might 
write three times a week and have drawing-lessons twice 
a week. In this way both these subjects might be taught, 
and each be made to help the other. 

4. Drawing Familiar Objects. — Let the children in 
school, particularly the younger children, have all the 
exercise they desire in drawing the pictures of familiar 
objects. Let them select their own topics and have full 
play, so long as their work does not interfere with the 
other exercises of the school. 

5. Blackboard Work. — As a general thing, pupils pre- 

26 



402 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

fer to draw on the blackboard with crayon, both because 
they can draw larger pictures and because other pupils 
see their work. The judicious teacher can frequently 
do much in the matter of securing good discipline by 
giving the little folks an opportunity to enjoy black- 
board drawing. 

6. Straight Lines. — Before pupils begin the work of 
drawing straight lines, let them take straight sticks and 
ghow what forms can be made with two sticks, as V, T, X, L, 
etc.; then let them reproduce some or all of these forms 
on the blackboard and on paper. In a similar way, let 
them show what forms they can produce with three 
straight sticks, then with four, and so on, always re- 
producing these forms with lines. 

7. Original Designs. — Many of the foregoing designs 
will represent forms with which the children have been 
previously familiar. Encourage pupils also to produce 
original designs — first, those consisting of straight lines, 
then of curved lines, then partly of each. 

8. Copies. — Let pupils at first have considerable prac- 
tice in drawing from copies before they attempt to. draw 
from Nature. Call their attention to any defects in 
proportion, shading, etc., as compared with the copy. 
Encourage them also to criticise the defects in printed 
pictures as a means of making them careful in their 
work. 

9. Graded Work. — In drawing pictures of objects, let 
the first lessons be in reproducing on paper the simpler 
forms of domestic utensils, particularly those whose 
outlines are straight rather than curved. These 
lessons should then be increased in difficulty very 
gradually, and the pupils should in general be re- 



DRAWING. 403 

stricted to the objects or scenes with which they are most 
familiar. 

10. Observation. — In order to draw correctly one must 
observe critically. The most correct artist is the one who 
most closely copies the object or the scene whose picture 
he produces. It is specially important, therefore, that 
the pupil be trained to look closely and critically at 
every part of the object or the picture he attempts to 
copy. This will also afford valuable culture for the 
perceptive faculty. 

11. The Teacher. — When a series of drawing-books is 
in use the teacher should thoroughly familiarize himself 
with the system, in order that he may teach intelligently. 
Where no system is in use, he will find sets of drawing- 
cards valuable. He will also find it valuable to place 
on the board occasionally an enlarged sketch of some 
object on the cards, and then have the pupils draw it 
reduced in size on paper at their desks. 

12. Importance. — Show pupils the importance of draw- 
ing, not only in connection with their studies, such as 
Geography, Natural Philosophy, etc., but also in connec- 
tion with almost every calling in life. 



CHAPTER III. 

Vocal Music. 

The acknowledged influence and power of music at 
all times, and particularly its influence over the impul- 
sive hearts of children, precludes the necessity of arguing 
here the importance of teaching either rote-singing or the 
science of music in every school, whatever its grade and 
character. The excellence of the instruction given in 
most elementary books on vocal music obviates the 
necessity of doing more than adding a few suggestions 
here. 

Suggestions on Vocal Music. 

1. Rote-Singing. — If nothing more can be done, train 
all your pupils to sing a number of hymns and appro- 
priate songs. The monotony of the school-exercises and 
the noise of uneasiness may both frequently be corrected 
by means of a cheerful song. If the teacher cannot 
sing, he should form a singing-club in his school and 
appoint some pupil as leader, who may be called upon 
by the teacher at any time to lead the singing. 

2. Vocal Training. — Nothing artistic can be done in the 
way of voice-culture, but the voices of nearly all pupils 
may be greatly improved by care. The greatest fault 
in children's singing is that they sing with too much 
force. Efforts should be made to correct this habit. 

404 



VOCAL MUSIC. 405 

Try to secure pure tones from pupils in their singing, 
requiring them to avoid all nasal tones and singing with 
the teeth too close together. Successful work here will 
have its influence also in making pupils pleasant readers. 

3. The Science of Music. — Attempts to teach the science 
of music to young pupils are not usually successful, un- 
less a great deal of time is devoted to the subject. It is 
not, therefore, advisable to attempt more than rote-sing- 
ing until the pupils have reached that stage of progress 
when they learn the science of music readily. 

4. Position in Singing. — When children sing, see that 
they sit or stand in such a way as to give their lungs 
entire freedom to expand, and see that the atmosphere 
in the room is pure. 

(For detailed instruction in the teaching of music the 
reader is referred to the many excellent treatises and 
chorus-books prepared specially for the music-class and 
the singing-school.) 



PAET III. 



METHODS OF CULTUEE. 

Culture consists in training and development. The 
chief objects of mental culture are to strengthen, chasten, 
and arouse to the highest degree of activity man's various 
mental powers. Want of space here precludes a full 
discussion of the various kinds of culture : such a dis- 
cussion would require a volume. The author limits 
himself, therefore, to a few of the most important sug- 
gestions on the culture of the different intellectual 
faculties, as being that part of the subject which is the 
most useful and practical for the teacher and the most 
interesting to the general reader. 

The chief intellectual faculties to which it is the office 
of the teacher to give development and training are Per- 
ception, Memory, Imagination, and the Understanding, 
and, as accompanying these, the general attribute of 
mind, Attention. 

How to Secure and Hold Attention. 

In the author's work on School Management the fol- 
lowing are given as the chief requisites for securing atten- 
tion, the arguments being here < mitted : 

406 



METHODS OF CULTURE. 407 

1 . The teacher must be interesting. 

2. The teacher should be animated in manner. 

3. 77ie teacher should present that which is new. 

4. Stories and anecdotes should be used in teaching. 

•". The teacher should adapt his teaching to the capacity 
of his pupils. 

6. The teacher should attract attention by good elocu- 
tion. 

7. The teacher should not talk too much. 

8. The teacher should hold attention by good class 
management. 

9. Inattentive pupils should be called upon frequently 
to recite. 

10. The teacher should hold attention by variety in 
exercises. 

11. The teacher should be vigilant and keep his pupils 
vigilant. 

12. The teacher should show his pupils that attention is 
the condition of success. 

The following suggestions will aid teachers in securing 
and holding the attention of pupils : 

1. Have your pupils observe closely. 

2. Arouse their curiositv. 

3. Show that you are interested in their work. 

4. Be cheerful. 

5. Vary your methods of recitation. 

6. Use the textbook as little as possible. 

7. Let your position before the class be such that you 
can look every pupil in the eye. 

8. Read a story or a description, and then have it re- 
produced by the pupils. 

9. Show your pupils that you expect them to be ready 



408 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

at any time to reproduce whatever you may tell in reci- 
tation. 

10. Cultivate attention by giving proper praise and 
credit when pupils are attentive. 

Culture of Perception. 

Perception is that power of the mind by which we 
gain knowledge through the senses. The knowledge 
furnished through perception forms the basis of all 
other knowledge, either acquired or originated in the 
mind. The chief avenues through which knowledge 
reaches the human mind are the five senses, touch, taste, 
smell, sight, and hearing, sometimes called "the five gate- 
ways of knowledge." The knowledge afforded by means 
of these senses is not only fundamental ; it is also the 
first knowledge that the child possesses. Perception is 
therefore the first faculty of the mind developed. 

Suggestions on the Culture of Perception. — 1. Physical 
Health is Essential to the Proper Culture of Perception. — 
Sensation precedes perception, but in order that our sen- 
sations may be distinct the organs of sense, together with 
the nerves which convey the intelligence to the brain, 
must be in a healthy condition ; and this can be the case 
only when the general physical health is good. 

2. Children should be Trained to Observe Closely and 
Accurately. — Pestalozzi claimed that in recognizing ob- 
servation as the absolute basis of all knowledge he estab- 
lished the first and most important principle of instruc- 
tion. 

3. Strict Attention is Necessary to Give Culture to thf 
Observing Powers. — Without attention on the part of 



METHODS OF CULTURE. 409 

the learner all efforts to communicate knowledge to him 
are useless. Ears, eyes, and other organs of sense are in 
a measure worthless to the inattentive. 

4. Object- Lessons are Important in Giving Culture to 
Perception. — The attention of children is more readily 
secured by having an object present to their senses than 
by a mere description. The sense of sight is also more 
active than any of the other senses, and a pupil will with 
a single inspection during an object-lesson often learn more 
than a description given by the teacher would convey to 
him in a series of lessons, 

5. Perception may be Cultivated by having Pupils Study 
Objects for the Purpose of Describing them. — It will read- 
ily be understood that in order to describe intelligently 
the pupil must observe both closely and accurately, and 
his perceptive powers will thus be improved. 

6. Sketching the Outlines of Objects is Valuable in Giving 
Culture to Perception. — In order to sketch or draw cor- 
rectly close observation is necessary, and this in turn 
gives culture to the faculty of perception. 

7. Variety in School- Work is Conducive to Culture of 
Perception. — Children whose minds are directed to one 
subject for too great a length of time become inattentive, 
and therefore lose interest to such an extent as to make 
their observation comparatively worthless. 

8. Short School-days are Best for the Culture of Per- 
ception. — Not only should the transition from one subject 
to another in school-work be frequent, but the number of 
school-hours also should be reduced in primary schools. 
Short school-days — four hours at most, and frequent re- 
cesses — are best for little children. Having no recess may 
be convenient for the teacher, but it is detrimental to the 



410 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

child's welfare, and therefore pernicious. The outdoor 
school is quite as important to the child as the more 
formal one indoors. 

9. Kindergarten Training is Excellent in Giving Cul- 
ture to the Faculty of Perception. — It was one of FroebePs 
characteristics that he cared more for " the habit of observ- 
ing than for the matter of observation." 

10. Encouraging Curiosity gives Culture to Perception. 
— The curiosity of children should not only be aroused, 
but they should also be taught how that curiosity may be 
gratified. A habit of inquiry as to the nature and uses 
of objects with which the child meets will greatly aid in 
giving valuable culture to the power of perception. 

Culture of Memory. 

Memory is that power of the mind by which we retain 
and recall knowledge. Some writers claim that the word 
"memory," as here defined, includes two faculties — mem- 
ory and recollection. For our present purpose it is 
sufficient to consider the two as included in the term 
" memory." In the order of mental development mem- 
ory follows perception. Perception enables us to gain 
knowledge through the senses ; memory enables us to 
retain that knowledge and recall it at will. 

Suggestions on the Culture of Memory. — 1. Close Atten- 
tion is Necessary to the Culture of Memory. — Attention is 
the first requisite to an accurate memory. The heedless 
student gets only a partial knowledge, and even this is 
soon lost. 

2. Memory is Strengthened by Use. — All mental powers 
are strengthened by exercise, but this is specially true of 



METHODS OF CULTURE. 411 

memory. The memory unemployed becomes weakened 
and unreliable. Every one in his own calling finds that 
his memory is most reliable with reference to that which 
gives this faculty the most exercise. 

3. The Memory should be Trusted. — The student who 
trusts to pen or pencil for what he ought to remember 
will soon find his memory comparatively worthless. They 
who desire a reliable memory must trust it and train it to 
ready obedience in recalling knowledge. 

4. Interesting Knowledge Aids Memory- Culture — The 
knowledge which we recall most readily is that which 
makes the deepest impression on us, because of the in- 
terest which it arouses in the mind. 

5. Memory- Culture is Aided by connecting Knowledge 
according to Laws of Association. — A thought is often 
recalled the more readily because of its association with 
some other thought which has preceded it in the mind. 
Thoughts suggest one another by the laws of association. 

6. Frequent Repetition Aids in Memory-Culture. — The 
more frequently a statement is repeated the more firmly 
is it impressed on the mind. Tt is this fact that makes 
reviews valuable, and the more frequent these reviews 
on points difficult to remember the more valuable will 
they be. 

7. The Memory is Strengthened by the Methodical Ar- 
rangement of Knowledge in the Mind. — Facts may be 
arranged according to the subjects to which they relate, 
or according to any methodical principle or association. 
Disconnected and isolated facts are always the most dif- 
ficalt to remember. 

(S. The Memory is Cultured by Memorizing Choice Prose 
or Poetical Extracts.- — This practice will also give valuable 



412 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

culture in language. The exercise may be extended to 
include dialogues, descriptions, and even definitions, pro- 
vided the pupils comprehend what they commit. 

9. Original Thought Aids Memory-Culture. — Pupils 
should be permitted to do their own thinking. When- 
ever the teacher offers assistance to a pupil who can help 
himself he violates the law r s of mental culture and does 
the pupil a great injury. 

10. Clear Apprehension Aids Memory- Culture. — When 
the learner grasps a thought his apprehension of it should 
be clear and distinct ; otherwise, when he comes to recall 
his knowledge there will be no response. 

11. Local Association Aids Memory-Culture. — We are 
often enabled to recall a statement because of its location 
on a particular part of the printed page. This power to 
remember by location is sometimes known as eye-memory. 
It is of special advantage in such subjects as spelling, where 
it is desirable to remember form. 

Culture of Imagination. 

Imagination is the power of mind by which we form 
ideal thoughts and conceptions. It seizes upon the 
knowledge furnished by perception, and creates pictures 
— not real, as recalled by memory, but ideal. It follows 
memory in the order of mental development, and it may 
receive culture at a very early period of the child's life. 
This culture may be necessary to make a sluggish imag- 
ination more active or to chasten an imagination already 
too vivid. 

Suggestions on the Culture of the Imagination. — 1. The 
Imagination may be Cultured by Studying Nahwe. — Hills, 



METHODS OF CULTURE. 413 

rocks, rivers, mountains, and other beautiful and pictur- 
esque scenery — the ocean, the firmament studded with 
stars at night, and all else that is grand in the works of 
Nature — may be made to aid in giving culture to this 
faculty. 

2. The Imagination may be Cultured by Studying Works 
of Art — Beautiful engravings, beautiful paintings, beau- 
tiful statuary, and pleasing music, may all be made to 
give culture to the imagination. 

3. The Imagination may be Cultured by the Study of 
Imaginative Literature. — Poetry, fiction, and all other 
literature in which the writer embodies his own ideals 
in elegant and beautiful language, may be made to 
serve an excellent purpose in giving culture to the 
imagination. 

4. The Imagination may be Cultured by Creating Images 
of our Own. — These images may be either literary or ar- 
tistic. The student may be led to draw ideal pictures, or 
he may be permitted to describe imaginary scenes, relate 
imaginary incidents, or even write fictitious stories. The 
exercise will be of practical value in giving culture to the 
imagination, while it also affords culture in language. 

5. The Imagination Needs Chastening as well as 
Strengthening. — Images must be appropriate. The 
imagination must be used in subordination to the dic- 
tates of a good taste and sound judgment. A vivid 
imagination unaccompanied by a discriminating taste is 
a dangerous power. The grotesque and fantastic prod- 
ucts of the savage's imagination differ from the pure 
and pleasing images of the cultured scholar's mind 
chiefly as the taste of the one differs in culture from 
that" of the other. 



414 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

Culture of the Understanding. 

The understanding is that power of the intellect by 
which we derive, through comparison, new truths and 
ideas. The term as here used is synonymous with the 
expression " reasoning powers." The work of the 
understanding consists in producing new truths and 
ideas from the materials furnished by the other men- 
tal faculties. This faculty embraces the forms of men- 
tal activity known as Abstraction, Classification, Gener- 
alization, Judgment, and Reasoning. 

Suggestions on the Culture of the Understanding. — 1. 
The Understanding may be Cultured by the Pursuit of 
such Studies as require Reasoning. — This, like the other 
mental faculties, is strengthened by use. AH studies 
that give practice in reasoning will, therefore, prove 
useful in strengthening the understanding. Among the 
most important of these studies are Arithmetic, Gram- 
mar, Geometry, Physical Science, Logic, etc. 

2. The Understanding may be Cultured by Arranging 
our Knowledge in Logical Order, — We reason correctly 
only as we proceed from thought to thought, each of 
which is logically dependent on the other. This logical 
order or dependence in thought may be that of means 
and end, cause and result, reason and consequent, part 
and whole, premise and conclusion, etc. 

3. Studies should be Arranged to give Culture in both 
Inductive and Deductive Reasoning. — Rules in mathe- 
matics and laws in physical science should be reached 
inductively. The application of these laws and prin- 
ciples in experiments and solutions will afford practice 
in deductive reasoning. 



METHODS OF CULTURE. 415 

4. Forensic Discussion will give Culture to the Under- 
standing. — The proof of facts by probable arguments 
or by " circumstantial evidence " affords a wide field for 
probable reasoning, and is thus an excellent means of 
broadening the understanding. Too much cannot be 
said in favor of debates and discussions as a means of 
strengthening the reasoning powers. 

5. The Student should have Practice in both Demon- 
strative and Probable Reasoning. — The first deals en- 
tirely with necessary truth, and is liable to make one 
arbitrary in his conclusions; the second deals with con- 
tingent truth, and serves to modify the positiveness of 
conclusions incident to demonstrative reasoning. Each 
is necessary to produce a well-balanced mind. 

6. That Culture of the Understanding is most Valuable 
which Leads tlie Mind to Search for Truth. — We may 
confound an opponent by making untruthful statements 
in argument, but we give no culture to the understand- 
ing, and we certainly weaken our moral influence more 
and more with every such statement made. The judg- 
ment is convinced not with sophistry, but by argument 
stated in such a logical way that the conclusiveness of it 
cannot be questioned. 



THE END. 



